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Merge pull request 'Publish v15' (#3) from prePubv15 into master 

Reviewed-on: https://git.door43.org/Door43-Catalog/en_ta/pulls/3
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Robert Hunt 2020-10-28 22:21:57 +00:00
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LICENSE.md
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*unfoldingWord® Translation Academy*
**unfoldingWord® Translation Academy**
*Copyright © 2020 by unfoldingWord*
**Copyright © 2020 by unfoldingWord**
This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) or send a letter to Creative Commons, PO Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042, USA.
unfoldingWord® is a registered trademark of unfoldingWord. Use of the unfoldingWord name or logo requires the written permission of unfoldingWord. Under the terms of the CC BY-SA license, you may copy and redistribute this unmodified work as long as you keep the unfoldingWord® trademark intact. If you modify a copy or translate this work, thereby creating a derivative work, you must remove the unfoldingWord® trademark.
On the derivative work, you must indicate what changes you have made and attribute the work as follows: “The original work by unfoldingWord is available from [unfoldingword.org/uta](https://www.unfoldingword.org/uta)”. You must also make your derivative work available under the same license (CC BY-SA).
On the derivative work, you must indicate what changes you have made and attribute the work as follows: “The original work by unfoldingWord is available from [unfoldingword.org/uta](https://www.unfoldingword.org/uta).” You must also make your derivative work available under the same license (CC BY-SA).
If you would like to notify unfoldingWord regarding your translation of this work, please contact us at [unfoldingword.org/contact/](https://www.unfoldingword.org/contact/).

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## Structure
UTA is written in a simple Markdown format and organized according to the [Resource Container Manual](https://resource-container.readthedocs.io/en/latest/container_types.html#manual-man) type. See that link for more information but here is a quick summary.
UTA is written in a simple Markdown format and organized according to the [Resource Container Manual](https://resource-container.readthedocs.io/en/latest/container_types.html#manual-man) type. See that link for more information but here is a quick summary.
Each manual has its own directory in this repository (for example, the Checking Manual is in the [checking](https://git.door43.org/unfoldingWord/en_ta/src/branch/master/checking) directory). Each module has its own directory inside of these manual directories. Inside each of these are three files:
@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ Each manual has its own directory in this repository (for example, the Checking
* `sub-title.md` - This file contians the question that the module is intended to answer.
* `title.md` - This contains the title of the module
There are also YAML formatted files in each manual’s directory. The `toc.yaml` file is for encoding the Table of Contents and the `config.yaml` file is for encoding dependencies between the modules.
There are also YAML formatted files in each manual’s directory. The `toc.yaml` file is for encoding the Table of Contents and the `config.yaml` file is for encoding dependencies between the modules.
## GL Translators
@ -32,20 +32,20 @@ There are also YAML formatted files in each manual’s directory. The `toc.yaml
To learn the philosophy of how to translate the UTA please see the [Translate unfoldingWord® Translation Academy](http://gl-manual.readthedocs.io/en/latest/gl_translation.html#translating-translationacademy) article in the [Gateway Language Manual](http://gl-manual.readthedocs.io/).
NOTE: The Bible was originally written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. In these languages, masculine pronouns and terms can apply to both men and women. The same is true in English, and in this manual we often use masculine terms to refer to both men and women. For example, in this manual we often use masculine pronouns to refer to people like you (and other translators) who will use this manual. But we do not intend to say that only men can use this manual or to say that only men can translate the Bible. We are simply using masculine terms to refer to both men and women.
NOTE: The Bible was originally written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. In these languages, masculine pronouns and terms can apply to both men and women. The same is true in English, and in this manual we often use masculine terms to refer to both men and women. For example, in this manual we often use masculine pronouns to refer to people like you (and other translators) who will use this manual. But we do not intend to say that only men can use this manual or to say that only men can translate the Bible. We are simply using masculine terms to refer to both men and women.
If you are translating online, please fork the [Door43-Catalog/en_ta](https://git.door43.org/Door43-Catalog/en_ta) repository, following this workflow: [Translate Content Online](https://forum.ccbt.bible/t/translate-content-online/75).
### Technical Information for Translating UTA
* *Do not* rename any files or directories. Only translate what is inside the files.
* *Do not* rename any files or directories. Only translate what is inside the files.
* The `config.yaml` and `toc.yaml` files do not need to be changed unless you add a new module. When you are finished translating, you may want to update the `title` fields in the `toc.yaml` file, but you shouldn’t make any other changes in those files.
* Images that are included in UTA should be no more than 600px wide. NOTE: If you use the images already in UTA, you do not need to translate the names of the image files. They will work in their current format.
* Images that are included in UTA should be no more than 600px wide. NOTE: If you use the images already in UTA, you do not need to translate the names of the image files. They will work in their current format.
* Hyperlinks (links to other articles or to other pages on the internet) follow this pattern: `[text to display](http://www.example.com)`. You can translate the “text to display” inside the square brackets but not the web address that follows inside the parentheses.
You are free to add additional modules. In order for the new modules to be included, all of the following conditions need to be satisfied:
* You must create a directory in one of the manual directories (like the translate directory) that has the short name of the module you want to write. For example, to create a new module on “testing” in the Translation Manual, you will want to put the file in “translate/testing/01.md”.
* You must create a directory in one of the manual directories (like the translate directory) that has the short name of the module you want to write. For example, to create a new module on “testing” in the Translation Manual, you will want to put the file in “translate/testing/01.md.”
* The file must be included in the table of contents, `toc.yaml` for the appropriate manual.
* The value of the slug in the `toc.yaml` file and the directory (without the extension) must be the same as the directory name (`testing` in this example).
* The slug must be unique, and not used in any of the other manuals. This is a requirement so that it is possible to create unambiguous links to each module.

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It is very important to make sure that the new translation is accurate. A translation is accurate when it communicates the same meaning as the original. In other words, an accurate translation communicates the same message that the original writer intended to communicate. A translation can be accurate even though it uses more or fewer words or puts the ideas in a different order. Often this is necessary in order to make the original message clear in the target language.
Although members of the translation team have checked the translation for accuracy with each other during the [Oral Partner Check](../peer-check/01.md), the translation will continue to improve as it is checked by many people, especially by pastors and church leaders. Each passage or book can be checked by one church leader, or, if many leaders are available, there can be several church leaders checking each passage or book. Having more than one person checking a story or passage can be helpful, because often different checkers will notice different things.
Although members of the translation team have checked the translation for accuracy with each other during the [Oral Partner Check](../peer-check/01.md), the translation will continue to improve as it is checked by many people, especially by pastors and church leaders. Each passage or book can be checked by one church leader, or, if many leaders are available, there can be several church leaders checking each passage or book. Having more than one person checking a story or passage can be helpful, because often different checkers will notice different things.
The church leaders who do accuracy checking should be speakers of the language of the translation, be respected in the community, and know the Bible well in the source language. They should not be the same people who translated the passage or book that they are checking. The accuracy checkers will be helping the translation team make sure that the translation says everything that the source says, and that it does not add things that are not part of the source message. Keep in mind, however, that accurate translations also might include [Implicit Information](../../translate/figs-explicit/01.md).
@ -11,14 +11,14 @@ It is true that the language community members who do the [Language Community Ch
The Church Leaders doing accuracy checking should follow these steps:
1. If possible, find out ahead of time which set of stories or which Bible passage you will be checking. Read the passage in several versions in any languages you understand. Read the passage in the ULT and UST, along with unfoldingWord® Translation Notes and unfoldingWord® Translation Words. You can read these in translationStudio or in Bible Viewer.
1. If possible, find out ahead of time which set of stories or which Bible passage you will be checking. Read the passage in several versions in any languages you understand. Read the passage in the ULT and UST, along with unfoldingWord® Translation Notes and unfoldingWord® Translation Words. You can read these in translationStudio or in Bible Viewer.
1. Then each of the accuracy checkers should read the translation (or listen to the recording) by himself, comparing it to the original Bible passage or story in the source language. The checker can do this using translationStudio. It can be helpful for someone, such as the translator, to read the translation out loud to the checker while the checker follows along looking at the source Bible or Bibles. As the checker reads (or listens to) the translation and compares it to the source, he should keep in mind these general questions:
* Does the translation add anything to the original meaning? (The original meaning also includes [Implicit Information](../../translate/figs-explicit/01.md).)
* Is there any part of the meaning that is left out of the translation?
* Has the translation changed the meaning in any way?
* Has the translation changed the meaning in any way?
1. It can be helpful to read or listen to the translation of the Bible passage several times. You might not notice everything the first time through a passage or verse. This is especially true if the translation puts ideas or parts of a sentence in a different order than in the source. You may need to check for one part of the sentence, then read or listen again to check for another part of the sentence. When you have read or listened to the passage as many times as it takes to find all of its parts, then you can move to the next passage. For more ways to check if the translation is complete, see [Complete](../complete/01.md).
1. The checker should make notes where he thinks there might be a problem or something to be improved. Each checker will discuss these notes with the translation team. The notes could be in the margins of a printed translation draft, or in a spreadsheet, or using the comment feature of translationCore.
@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ The Church Leaders doing accuracy checking should follow these steps:
1. After the translation team revises the translation, they should read it out loud to each other or to other members of the language community to make sure that it still sounds natural in their language.
1. If there are any Bible passages or verses that are still difficult to understand, the translation team should make a note of the difficulty. The translation team can assign these problems to members to do more research in Bible translation helps or commentaries to find the answer, or they can ask for additional help from other Bible checkers or consultants. When the members have discovered the meaning, the translation team can meet again to decide how to express that meaning naturally and clearly in their language.
1. If there are any Bible passages or verses that are still difficult to understand, the translation team should make a note of the difficulty. The translation team can assign these problems to members to do more research in Bible translation helps or commentaries to find the answer, or they can ask for additional help from other Bible checkers or consultants. When the members have discovered the meaning, the translation team can meet again to decide how to express that meaning naturally and clearly in their language.
##### Additional Questions
@ -42,5 +42,5 @@ These questions can also be helpful for finding anything that might be inaccurat
* Are the phrases used in the new translation helpful in understanding the more difficult phrases of the source translation? (Are the phrases of the new translation put together in a way that brings better understanding yet still fits with the meaning of the source language translation?)
* Another way to determine if the text is accurate is to ask comprehension questions about the translation, such as, “who did what, when, where, how, and why?” There are questions that have already been prepared to help with this. (To view the unfoldingWord® Translation Questions go to http://ufw.io/tq/.) The answers to those questions should be the same as the answers to those questions about the source language translation. If they are not, there is a problem in the translation.
For more general types of things that need to be checked, go to [Types of Things to Check](../vol2-things-to-check/01.md).
For more general types of things that need to be checked, go to [Types of Things to Check](../vol2-things-to-check/01.md).

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### Alignment Checking
Alignment Checking will be done by the Church Network Delegates. These are people who are chosen by the church leaders in the language community. These people are first-language speakers of the target language, are knowledgeable about the Bible, and are persons whose opinions are respected by the church leaders. If possible, they should be people who are trained in biblical languages, biblical content, and translation principles. When these people affirm the translation, the church leaders will approve of the distribution and use of the translation among the people who know and respect them.
Alignment Checking will be done by the Church Network Delegates. These are people who are chosen by the church leaders in the language community. These people are first-language speakers of the target language, are knowledgeable about the Bible, and are persons whose opinions are respected by the church leaders. If possible, they should be people who are trained in biblical languages, biblical content, and translation principles. When these people affirm the translation, the church leaders will approve of the distribution and use of the translation among the people who know and respect them.
If these people do not exist in the language community, then the translation team may want to collaborate with Quality Checkers from outside the language community in order to do Alignment Checking. In this case, it may be necessary to prepare a [backtranslation](../vol2-backtranslation/01.md).
If these people do not exist in the language community, then the translation team may want to collaborate with Quality Checkers from outside the language community in order to do Alignment Checking. In this case, it may be necessary to prepare a [backtranslation](../vol2-backtranslation/01.md).
Those who do Alignment Checking should be other than the people who did the previous [Accuracy Checking](../accuracy-check/01.md). Since Alignment Checking is also a form of accuracy checking, the translation will receive the maximum benefit if different people do each of these checks.
Those who do Alignment Checking should be other than the people who did the previous [Accuracy Checking](../accuracy-check/01.md). Since Alignment Checking is also a form of accuracy checking, the translation will receive the maximum benefit if different people do each of these checks.
The purpose of Alignment Checking is to ensure that the translation accurately communicates the message of the original language texts and reflects the sound doctrine of the global Church throughout history and throughout the world. After Alignment Checking, the leaders of the churches that speak the target language can affirm that the translation is trustworthy for their people.
The purpose of Alignment Checking is to ensure that the translation accurately communicates the message of the original language texts and reflects the sound doctrine of the global Church throughout history and throughout the world. After Alignment Checking, the leaders of the churches that speak the target language can affirm that the translation is trustworthy for their people.
It is best if the leaders from every Church network in the language community can appoint or approve some of the people who will do the Alignment Checking. In that way, all of the church leaders will be able to affirm that the translation is trustworthy and useful for all of the churches of the community.
@ -14,25 +14,25 @@ The tool that we recommend for Alignment Checking is the Alignment Tool in trans
If you are a Quality Checker (QC) and are using Alignment Checking as part of your checking process, go to [Steps for Quality Checkers](../vol2-steps/01.md) to see the rest of the QC checking process.
#### In order to use the Alignment Tool to do Alignment Checking:
#### In order to use the Alignment Tool to do Alignment Checking:
1. Load the translation of the Bible book that you want to check into translationCore®.
1. Choose the Word Alignment tool.
1. Choose the Word Alignment tool.
1. Navigate through the verses using the menu of chapters and verses on the left side.
* When you click on a verse in the menu list to open it, the words of that verse appear in a vertical list, ordered from top to bottom, just to the right of the list of chapters and verses. Each word is in a separate box.
* The words of the original language (Greek, Hebrew, or Aramaic) text for that verse are also in separate boxes in a field to the right of the target language word list. There is a space under each of the original language word boxes outlined with a dotted line.
1. In each verse, drag the target language words in the word bank onto the space below the original language words that express that same meaning.
* When you click on a verse in the menu list to open it, the words of that verse appear in a vertical list, ordered from top to bottom, just to the right of the list of chapters and verses. Each word is in a separate box.
* The words of the original language (Greek, Hebrew, or Aramaic) text for that verse are also in separate boxes in a field to the right of the target language word list. There is a space under each of the original language word boxes outlined with a dotted line.
1. In each verse, drag the target language words in the word bank onto the space below the original language words that express that same meaning.
* To drag a word, click and hold down the button as you move each word box of the target language into the space under the word box of the source (original) text that the word corresponds to. Drop the target language word by releasing the mouse button.
* When the target language word is over a word box of the original, the dotted outline will turn blue to let you know that the word will drop there. If you make a mistake or decide that the target word belongs somewhere else, simply drag it again to where it belongs. Target language words can also be dragged back to the list.
* If there are repeated words in a verse, make sure to drag only the words that correspond to that part of the meaning of the original language verse. Then drag the repeated words to the place in the original verse where that meaning is repeated.
* If there are repeated words in a verse, make sure to drag only the words that correspond to that part of the meaning of the original language verse. Then drag the repeated words to the place in the original verse where that meaning is repeated.
* When the same target language word occurs more than once in a verse, each instance of the word will have a small superscript number after it. This number will help you to align each repeated target word to the correct original word in the correct order.
* You may need to combine original language words and/or target language words in order to make groups of words that have equivalent meanings. The goal of aligning is to match the smallest group of target language words to the smallest group of original language words that have the same meaning.
When you have finished this process for a verse, it should be easy to see if there are words left over in either the target word bank or the original language pane.
* If there are target language words left over, this may mean that there is something that has been added that does not belong in the translation. If the left-over words are expressing implied information, then they are not necessarily extra, but could be aligned to the word or words that they are explaining.
* If there are original language words left over, this may mean that the translation needs to include a translation of these words.
* If you determine that the translation has words that it should not have or is missing a translation of some words of the original text, then someone will need to edit the translation. You can either make a comment to tell someone else what to change in the translation, or you can edit the translation directly in the Alignment Tool, depending on your role in the Translation Team.
* If there are target language words left over, this may mean that there is something that has been added that does not belong in the translation. If the left-over words are expressing implied information, then they are not necessarily extra, but could be aligned to the word or words that they are explaining.
* If there are original language words left over, this may mean that the translation needs to include a translation of these words.
* If you determine that the translation has words that it should not have or is missing a translation of some words of the original text, then someone will need to edit the translation. You can either make a comment to tell someone else what to change in the translation, or you can edit the translation directly in the Alignment Tool, depending on your role in the Translation Team.
#### Alignment Philosophy
@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ The Alignment Tool supports one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, and many-to-ma
Because each target language will have different requirements for sentence structure and the amount of explicit information that must be provided, there will often be some target language words that do not have an exact match to any original language words. If these words are there to give information that the sentence needs in order to make sense, or to provide some implicit information that is necessary for understanding the sentence, then the target words that are provided should be aligned with the original language word that implies them, or that they help to explain.
#### Merge and Unmerge Instructions
#### Merge and Unmerge Instructions
* To align multiple target language words to a single original language word, simply drag and drop the target language words onto the box below the desired original language word.
* When it is desired to align target language word(s) to a combination of original language words, first drag one of the combination original language words into the same box as the other original language word. Multiple original language words can be merged together in this fashion.
@ -50,6 +50,6 @@ Because each target language will have different requirements for sentence struc
#### After Aligning
If you are a Quality Checker, after you have finished aligning a Bible book and making questions and comments about the translation, it is time to either send the questions to the translation team or plan to meet together with the translation team and discuss them. For the steps to complete this process, return to where you left off on the [Steps for Quality Checkers](../vol2-steps/01.md) page.
If you are a Quality Checker, after you have finished aligning a Bible book and making questions and comments about the translation, it is time to either send the questions to the translation team or plan to meet together with the translation team and discuss them. For the steps to complete this process, return to where you left off on the [Steps for Quality Checkers](../vol2-steps/01.md) page.
To learn more about the kinds of things that need to be checked, go to [Types of Things to Check](../vol2-things-to-check/01.md).

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How do I use the Alignment Tool in translationCore to do Alignment Checking?
How do I use the Alignment Tool in translationCore to do alignment checking?

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#### Accountability
The Bible belongs to the global Church, meaning all Christians throughout history and throughout the world. Every part of the Church is accountable to every other part of the Church for how we interpret, proclaim, and live what the Bible says. In regard to Bible translation, each language of the world will have its own way of expressing the meaning that the Bible contains. Even so, the part of the Church that speaks each language is accountable to the other parts of the Church for how they express that meaning. For that reason, those who translate the Bible must study how others have translated it. They must be guided by and open to correction from others who are experts in biblical languages and how the Church has understood and interpreted the Bible through history.
The Bible belongs to the global Church, meaning all Christians throughout history and throughout the world. Every part of the Church is accountable to every other part of the Church for how we interpret, proclaim, and live what the Bible says. In regard to Bible translation, each language of the world will have its own way of expressing the meaning that the Bible contains. Even so, the part of the Church that speaks each language is accountable to the other parts of the Church for how they express that meaning. For that reason, those who translate the Bible must study how others have translated it. They must be guided by and open to correction from others who are experts in biblical languages and how the Church has understood and interpreted the Bible through history.
#### Authority and Capacity

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### Accuracy Checking by Church Leaders
After the translation has been checked by community members for clarity and naturalness, it will be checked by church leaders for accuracy. These are the guidelines for these church leaders who do the accuracy checking. They should be mother-tongue speakers of the target language and also understand well one of the languages in which the source text is available. They should not be the same people who did the translation. They should be church leaders who know the Bible well. Usually these reviewers will be pastors. These church leaders should represent as many of the different church networks in the language community as possible.
After the translation has been checked by community members for clarity and naturalness, it will be checked by church leaders for accuracy. These are the guidelines for these church leaders who do the accuracy checking. They should be mother-tongue speakers of the target language and also understand well one of the languages in which the source text is available. They should not be the same people who did the translation. They should be church leaders who know the Bible well. Usually these reviewers will be pastors. These church leaders should represent as many of the different church networks in the language community as possible.
These reviewers should follow these steps:

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@ -12,20 +12,20 @@ Please also answer the following questions. The answers to these questions will
* List a few passages where the community feedback was helpful. How did you change these passages to make them clearer?
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
* Write an explanation for some of the Important Terms, explaining how they are equal to terms used in the source language. This will help the checkers understand why you chose these terms.
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
* Does the community verify that there is a good flow to the language when the passages are read out loud? (Does the language sound like the writer was a person from your own community?)
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
The community leaders might want to add their own information to this or make a summary statement about how acceptable this translation is to the local community. The wider church leadership will have access to this information, and it will help them to understand and to have confidence in the checking process that has been done so far. This will help them to validate the translation as approved by the local Christian community both when they do the Accuracy Check and when they do the final Validation Check.

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@ -17,9 +17,9 @@ accuracy-check:
- guidelines-accurate
- important-term-check
alignment-tool:
recommended:
recommended:
- vol2-things-to-check
dependencies:
dependencies:
- vol2-steps
- guidelines-accurate
alphabet:
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ alphabet:
- translate-alphabet
- formatting
authority-process:
recommended:
recommended:
- peer-check
dependencies:
- goal-checking
@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ church-leader-check:
recommended:
- accuracy-check
- good
dependencies:
dependencies:
- trans-note-check
clear:
recommended:
@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ complete:
- self-assessment
- good
- verses
dependencies:
dependencies:
- punctuation
formatting:
recommended:

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There are checks that you can do before, during, and after translation of a book of the Bible that will make the translation process go much easier so that the translation will look good and be as easy to read as possible. The modules on these topics are gathered here under Formatting and Publishing, but they are things that the translation team should be thinking about and deciding throughout the translation process.
There are checks that you can do before, during, and after translation of a book of the Bible that will make the translation process go much easier so that the translation will look good and be as easy to read as possible. The modules on these topics are gathered here under Formatting and Publishing, but they are things that the translation team should be thinking about and deciding throughout the translation process.
### Before Translating

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@ -9,11 +9,11 @@ The checkers who are pastors, church leaders, and leaders of church networks wil
#### Clear
The checkers who are members of the language community will help the translation team produce a translation that is clear. They will do this by listening to the translation and pointing out to them the places where the translation is confusing or does not make sense to them. Then the translation team can fix those places so that they are clear. (For more information about clear translations, see [Create Clear Translations](../../translate/guidelines-clear/01.md).)
The checkers who are members of the language community will help the translation team produce a translation that is clear. They will do this by listening to the translation and pointing out to them the places where the translation is confusing or does not make sense to them. Then the translation team can fix those places so that they are clear. (For more information about clear translations, see [Create Clear Translations](../../translate/guidelines-clear/01.md).)
#### Natural
The checkers who are members of the language community will also help the translation team produce a translation that is natural. They will do this by listening to the translation and pointing out to them the places where the translation sounds strange and does not sound like the way that someone who speaks their language would say it. Then the translation team can fix those places so that they are natural. (For more information about natural translations, see [Create Natural Translations](../../translate/guidelines-natural/01.md).)
The checkers who are members of the language community will also help the translation team produce a translation that is natural. They will do this by listening to the translation and pointing out to them the places where the translation sounds strange and does not sound like the way that someone who speaks their language would say it. Then the translation team can fix those places so that they are natural. (For more information about natural translations, see [Create Natural Translations](../../translate/guidelines-natural/01.md).)
#### Church-approved

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What is the Goal of Checking?
What is the goal of checking?

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@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ One of the decisions that the translation team will have to make is whether or n
Using section headings requires more work, because you will need either to write or to translate each one in addition to the text of the Bible. It will also make your translation of the Bible longer. But section headings can be very helpful to your readers. Section headings make it much easier to find where the Bible talks about different topics. If a person is looking for something in particular, he can just read the section headings until he finds one that introduces the topic that he wants to read about. Then he can read that section.
If you have decided to use section headings, then you will need to decide which kind to use. Again, you should find out which kind of section heading the language community prefers. You may also choose to follow the style of the national language. Be sure to use a kind of section heading that the people will understand is not part of the text that it introduces. The section heading is not a part of the Bible; it is just a guide to the different parts of the Bible. You might be able to make this clear by putting a space before and after the section heading and by using a different font (style of letters) or a different size of letters. See how the Bible in the national language does this, and test different methods with the language community.
If you have decided to use section headings, then you will need to decide which kind to use. Again, you should find out which kind of section heading the language community prefers. You may also choose to follow the style of the national language. Be sure to use a kind of section heading that the people will understand is not part of the text that it introduces. The section heading is not a part of the Bible; it is just a guide to the different parts of the Bible. You might be able to make this clear by putting a space before and after the section heading and by using a different font (style of letters) or a different size of letters. See how the Bible in the national language does this, and test different methods with the language community.
### Kinds of Section Headings

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@ -5,27 +5,27 @@
1. Select the project (book of the Bible) that you want to check
1. Select the category or categories of words that you want to check
1. Select your Gateway Language
1. Click "Launch"
1. Work through the list of words on the left by following the instructions that appear to the right of the Bible verse.
1. Click “Launch”
1. Work through the list of words on the left by following the instructions that appear to the right of the Bible verse.
1. To understand the source word better, you can read the short definition in the blue bar, or the longer one in the panel on the right side.
1. After selecting (highlighting) the translation for the word or phrase in the list, click "Save."
1. After selecting (highlighting) the translation for the word or phrase in the list, click “Save.”
1. Consider whether or not the term that was chosen makes sense in this context.
1. If you think that the translation for the term is a good translation, then click "Save and Continue."
1. If you think that the translation for the term is a good translation, then click “Save and Continue.”
1. If you think that there is a problem with the verse or that the translation for the word or phrase is not good, then either edit the verse to make it better, or make a comment telling someone who will review your work what you think might be wrong with the translation here.
1. If you have made an edit, you may need to make your selection again.
1. When you are finished making your edit or comment, click "Save and Continue." If you prefer to only make a comment about a term and not make a selection for it, then click on the next verse in the list on the left to go on to the next word.
1. When you are finished making your edit or comment, click “Save and Continue.” If you prefer to only make a comment about a term and not make a selection for it, then click on the next verse in the list on the left to go on to the next word.
After a selection has been made for all of the verses where a translationWord occurs, the list for that word can be reviewed. The instructions that follow are for the reviewer or for the translation team.
1. You will now be able to see a list of the translations that were made for each term under each translationWord on the left. If you see that the word was translated in different ways in different verses, you will want to review the places that have differences to see if the target term used was the correct one for each context.
1. You will also want to review any comments that were made by others. To do that, click the funnel symbol to the right of "Menu" at the upper left. A list will open, including the word "Comments."
1. Click the box next to "Comments." This will make all verses that do not have comments in them disappear.
1. You will now be able to see a list of the translations that were made for each term under each translationWord on the left. If you see that the word was translated in different ways in different verses, you will want to review the places that have differences to see if the target term used was the correct one for each context.
1. You will also want to review any comments that were made by others. To do that, click the funnel symbol to the right of “Menu” at the upper left. A list will open, including the word “Comments.”
1. Click the box next to “Comments.” This will make all verses that do not have comments in them disappear.
1. To read the comments, click on the first verse in the list.
1. Click on "Comment."
1. Read the comment, and decide what you will do about it.
1. If you decide to make an edit to the verse, then click "Cancel" and then "Edit Verse." This will open a small screen where you can edit the verse.
1. When you are finished making the edit, select the reason for the change, and then click "Save."
1. Click on “Comment.”
1. Read the comment, and decide what you will do about it.
1. If you decide to make an edit to the verse, then click “Cancel” and then “Edit Verse.” This will open a small screen where you can edit the verse.
1. When you are finished making the edit, select the reason for the change, and then click “Save.”
Continue this process until you have acted on all of the comments that were left for you.
Continue this process until you have acted on all of the comments that were left for you.
If you are unsure if a translation for a certain term is correct in a certain context, it might be helpful to consult the key terms spreadsheet that the translation team made as they were creating the translation. You may also want to discuss a difficult term with others on the translation team and try to find a solution together. You may need to use a different term in some contexts, or find another way to communicate the concept, such as using a longer phrase.

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### Translation Checking Manual
This manual describes how to check Bible translations in Other Languages (OLs) for accuracy, clarity, and naturalness. (For the process to check Gateway Languages (GLs), see the [Gateway Language Manual](https://gl-manual.readthedocs.io/en/latest/)). This Translation Checking Manual also discusses the importance of obtaining approval for the translation and the translation process from the church leaders of the language area.
This manual describes how to check Bible translations in Other Languages (OLs) for accuracy, clarity, and naturalness. (For the process to check Gateway Languages (GLs), see the [Gateway Language Manual](https://gl-manual.readthedocs.io/en/latest/)). This Translation Checking Manual also discusses the importance of obtaining approval for the translation and the translation process from the church leaders of the language area.
The manual begins with instructions for checking the translation that the translation team will use to check each other’s work. These checks include the [Oral Partner Check](../peer-check/01.md) and the [Team Oral Chunk Check](../team-oral-chunk-check/01.md). Then there are instructions for the translation team to use for checking the translation with the translationCore software. These include the [Translation Words Check](../important-term-check/01.md) and the [Translation Notes check](../trans-note-check/01.md).
The manual begins with instructions for checking the translation that the translation team will use to check each other’s work. These checks include the [Oral Partner Check](../peer-check/01.md) and the [Team Oral Chunk Check](../team-oral-chunk-check/01.md). Then there are instructions for the translation team to use for checking the translation with the translationCore software. These include the [Translation Words Check](../important-term-check/01.md) and the [Translation Notes check](../trans-note-check/01.md).
After this, the translation team will need to check the translation with the [Language Community](../language-community-check/01.md) for clarity and naturalness. This is necessary because other speakers of the language can often suggest better ways of saying things that the translation team may not have thought of. Sometimes the translation team makes the translation sound strange because they are following the words of the source language too closely. Other speakers of the language can help them fix that.
Another check that the translation team can do at this point is [Church Leader Check](../accuracy-check/01.md) (or OL pastor check). Since the OL pastors are familiar with the Bible in the Gateway Language (GL), they can check the translation for accuracy to the GL Bible. They can also catch mistakes that the translation team did not see because the translation team is so close to and involved in their work. Also, the translation team may lack some of the expertise or knowledge of the Bible that other OL pastors might have who are not part of the translation team. In this way, the whole language community can work together to make sure that the Bible translation is accurate, clear, and natural in the target language.
After this, the translation team will need to check the translation with the [Language Community](../language-community-check/01.md) for clarity and naturalness. This is necessary because other speakers of the language can often suggest better ways of saying things that the translation team may not have thought of. Sometimes the translation team makes the translation sound strange because they are following the words of the source language too closely. Other speakers of the language can help them fix that.
Another check that the translation team can do at this point is [Church Leader Check](../accuracy-check/01.md) (or OL pastor check). Since the OL pastors are familiar with the Bible in the Gateway Language (GL), they can check the translation for accuracy to the GL Bible. They can also catch mistakes that the translation team did not see because the translation team is so close to and involved in their work. Also, the translation team may lack some of the expertise or knowledge of the Bible that other OL pastors might have who are not part of the translation team. In this way, the whole language community can work together to make sure that the Bible translation is accurate, clear, and natural in the target language.
A further check for the accuracy of the Bible translation is to align it to the original languages of the Bible using the [Word Alignment](../alignment-tool/01.md) tool in Translation Core. After all of these checks have been performed and the translation has been aligned, the leaders of the OL church networks will want to [Review](../vol2-steps/01.md) the translation and give their [Endorsement](../level3-approval/01.md). Because many leaders of church networks do not speak the language of the translation, there are also instructions for creating a [Back Translation](../vol2-backtranslation/01.md), which allows people to check a translation in a language that they do not speak.

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@ -11,18 +11,18 @@ First, he may not have understood the source text correctly, and so someone who
Or it could be that he did not understand something about what the Bible meant to communicate at a certain place. In this case, someone who knows the Bible well, such as a Bible teacher or a Bible translation checker, can correct the translation.
Secondly, although the translator may know very well what the text should say, the way he translated it might mean something else to a different person. That is, another person might think that the translation is talking about something other than what the translator intended. Or the person hearing or reading the translation might not understand what the translator was trying to say.
Secondly, although the translator may know very well what the text should say, the way he translated it might mean something else to a different person. That is, another person might think that the translation is talking about something other than what the translator intended. Or the person hearing or reading the translation might not understand what the translator was trying to say.
It often happens when one person writes a sentence and then another person reads it (or sometimes even if the first person reads it again later), that they understand it to say something different from what the writer meant. Take the following sentence as an example.
"John took Peter to the temple and then he went home."
“John took Peter to the temple and then he went home.”
In his mind when he wrote it, the writer meant that Peter went home, but the reader thought that the writer probably meant that it was John who went home. The sentence needs to be changed so that it is more clear.
Finally, a translation team is very close to and involved in their work, and so they sometimes do not see mistakes that others can see more easily. For these reasons, it is always necessary to check what someone else understands from the translation so that you (the translator) can make it more accurate and more clear.
Finally, a translation team is very close to and involved in their work, and so they sometimes do not see mistakes that others can see more easily. For these reasons, it is always necessary to check what someone else understands from the translation so that you (the translator) can make it more accurate and more clear.
This Checking Manual is a guide to the process of checking. It will guide you through several kinds of checks that will allow you to fix these problems. We believe that having many people doing a variety of different checks will result in a faster checking process, allow broad church participation and ownership, and produce better translations.
For more examples of the things that need to be checked, see [Types of Things to Check](../vol2-things-to-check/01.md).
*Credits: Quotation used by permission, © 2013, SIL International, Sharing Our Native Culture, p. 69.*
**Credits: Quotation used by permission, © 2013, SIL International, Sharing Our Native Culture, p. 69.**

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### Language Community Check
After the translation team has completed the steps of drafting and checking as a team and performed the checks in translationCore, the translation is ready to be checked by the target language community. The community will help the translation team to make the translation communicate its message clearly and naturally in the target language. To do this, the translation committee will choose people to be trained in the process of community checking. These could be the same people who have been doing the translating.
After the translation team has completed the steps of drafting and checking as a team and performed the checks in translationCore, the translation is ready to be checked by the target language community. The community will help the translation team to make the translation communicate its message clearly and naturally in the target language. To do this, the translation committee will choose people to be trained in the process of community checking. These could be the same people who have been doing the translating.
These people will go throughout the language community and check the translation with members of the language community. It is best if they do this checking with a variety of people, including young and old, male and female, and speakers from various parts of the language area. This will help the translation to be understandable to everyone.
@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ To use these questions, follow these steps:
2. Ask the community members some of the questions for that passage, one question at a time. It is not necessary to use all of the questions for each story or chapter if it seems that the community members are understanding the translation well.
3. After each question, a member of the language community will answer the question. If the person only answers with a “yes” or a “no”, then the questioner should ask a further question so that he can be sure that the translation is communicating well. A further question could be something like, “How do you know that?” or “What part of the translation tells you that?”
3. After each question, a member of the language community will answer the question. If the person only answers with a “yes” or a “no,” then the questioner should ask a further question so that he can be sure that the translation is communicating well. A further question could be something like, “How do you know that?” or “What part of the translation tells you that?”
4. Write down or record the answer that the person gives, along with the chapter and verse of the Bible or the story and frame number of Open Bible Stories that you are talking about. If the person’s answer is similar to the suggested answer that has been provided for the question, then the translation is clearly communicating the right information at that point. The answer does not have to be exactly the same as the suggested answer to be a right answer, but it should give basically the same information. Sometimes the suggested answer is very long. If the person answers with only part of the suggested answer, that is also a right answer.
@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ To use these questions, follow these steps:
7. After the translation team has revised the translation of a passage, then ask some other members of the language community the same questions for that passage. That is, ask other speakers of the language who have not been involved in checking that same passage before. If they answer the questions correctly, then the translation of that passage is now communicating well.
8. Repeat this process with each story or Bible chapter until members of the language community can answer the questions well, showing that the translation is communicating the right information clearly. The translation is ready for the church leader's accuracy check when language community members who have not heard the translation before can answer the questions correctly.
8. Repeat this process with each story or Bible chapter until members of the language community can answer the questions well, showing that the translation is communicating the right information clearly. The translation is ready for the church leader’s accuracy check when language community members who have not heard the translation before can answer the questions correctly.
9. Go to the Community Evaluation page and answer the questions there. (See [Language Community Evaluation Questions](../community-evaluation/01.md).)

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@ -10,8 +10,8 @@ I, as a Quality Checker for the * <u>fill in name of church network or other org
If any problems remain unresolved after meeting with the Translation Team a second time, please make note of them here.
Signed: * <u>sign here</u> *
Signed: <u>sign here</u>
Position: * <u>fill in your position here</u> *
Position: <u>fill in your position here</u>
For Gateway Languages, you will need to follow the [Source Text Process](../../process/source-text-process/01.md) so that your translation can become a source text.

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### Questions for Quality Checkers or Church Network Delegates
If the Church Network leadership or Translation Committee has given you the task of checking the accuracy of the translation in the role of a Quality Checker (QC), you can use these questions to guide your evaluation of the translation.
If the Church Network leadership or Translation Committee has given you the task of checking the accuracy of the translation in the role of a Quality Checker (QC), you can use these questions to guide your evaluation of the translation.
You can answer these questions after you read portions of the translation or as you come across problems in the text. If you answer “no” to any of these questions in the first group, please explain in more detail. Include the specific passage that you feel is not right, and give your recommendation for how the translation team should correct it.
@ -14,13 +14,13 @@ Also keep in mind that the translators may have included information that the or
1. Does the translation conform to the Statement of Faith and Translation Guidelines?
1. Did the translation team show a good understanding of the source language as well as the target language and culture?
1. Does the language community affirm that the translation speaks in a clear and natural way in their language?
1. Is the translation [complete](../complete/01.md)? (Does it have all of the verses, events, and information as the source)?
1. Is the translation [complete](../complete/01.md)? (Does it have all of the verses, events, and information as the source)?
1. Which of the following translation styles did the translators appear to follow?
1. word-by-word translation, staying very close to the form of the source translation
1. phrase-by-phrase translation, using natural language phrase structures
1. meaning-focused translation, aiming for a freedom of local language expression
1. meaning-focused translation, aiming for a freedom of local language expression
1. Do the community leaders feel that the style that the translators followed (as identified in question 4) is appropriate for the community?
1. Do the community leaders feel that the dialect that the translators used is the best one to communicate to the wider language community? For example, did the translators use expressions, phrase connectors, and spellings that will be recognized by most people in the language community? For more ways to explore this question, see [Acceptable Style](../acceptable/01.md).
1. As you read the translation, think about cultural issues in the local community that might make some passages in the book difficult to translate. Did the translation team translate these passages in a way that makes the message of the source text clear, and avoids any misunderstanding that people might have because of the cultural issue?

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### A Natural Translation
To translate the Bible so that it is natural means that the translation should sound like it was written by a member of the target language community. The translation should not sound like it was written by a foreigner. The translation should say things in the way that speakers of the target language say them. When a translation is natural, it is much easier to understand.
To translate the Bible so that it is natural means that the translation should sound like it was written by a member of the target language community. The translation should not sound like it was written by a foreigner. The translation should say things in the way that speakers of the target language say them. When a translation is natural, it is much easier to understand.
To check a translation for naturalness, it is not helpful to compare it to the source language. During this check for naturalness, no one should look at the source language Bible. People will look at the source language Bible again for other checks––such as the check for accuracy––but not during this check.
To check a translation for naturalness, you or another member of the language community must read it out loud or play a recording of it. It is difficult to evaluate a translation for naturalness when you are only looking at it on paper. But when your people hear the language, they will know immediately if it sounds right or not.
To check a translation for naturalness, you or another member of the language community must read it out loud or play a recording of it. It is difficult to evaluate a translation for naturalness when you are only looking at it on paper. But when your people hear the language, they will know immediately if it sounds right or not.
You can read it out loud to one other person who speaks the target language or to a group of people. Before you start reading, tell the people listening that you want them to stop you when they hear something that does not sound like the way someone from your language community would say it. When someone stops you, then you can discuss together how someone would say that same thing in a more natural way.

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As well as asking questions, there are other checking methods that you may also use to ensure that the translation is [clear](../clear/01.md), easy to read, and sounds [natural](../natural/01.md) to the listeners. Here are some other methods that you may like to try:
* **Retell Method**: You (the translator or checker) can read a passage or story and ask someone else to retell what was said. If the person can easily retell the passage, then the passage was clear. Make a note of any place that the person left out or told incorrectly, along with the chapter and verse. The translation team may need to revise those places in the translation to make them more clear. Also make note of any different ways that the person said things that mean the same thing as in the translation. It may be that these ways of saying things are more natural than the ways in the translation. The translation team can use these ways of saying the same thing to make the translation more natural.
* **Retell Method**: You (the translator or checker) can read a passage or story and ask someone else to retell what was said. If the person can easily retell the passage, then the passage was clear. Make a note of any place that the person left out or told incorrectly, along with the chapter and verse. The translation team may need to revise those places in the translation to make them more clear. Also make note of any different ways that the person said things that mean the same thing as in the translation. It may be that these ways of saying things are more natural than the ways in the translation. The translation team can use these ways of saying the same thing to make the translation more natural.
* **Reading Method**: Someone other than you (the translator or checker) can read aloud a passage of the translation while you listen and take notes of where the person pauses or makes mistakes. This will show how easy or how difficult it is to read and understand the translation. Look at the places in the translation where the reader paused or made mistakes and consider what made that part of the translation difficult. The translation team may need to revise the translation at those points so that it is easier to read and understand.

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At this point, you (the translator) should have already gone through the steps of drafting at least one chapter of your translation, following the guidelines in the module called [First Draft](../../translate/first-draft/01.md). Now you are ready for others to help you to check it, to find any errors or problems, and to make it better. You (or your translation team) should check your translation before you translate very many stories or chapters of the Bible, so that you can correct mistakes as early as possible in the translation process. Many of the steps in this process will need to be done several times before the translation is finished. To do an Oral Partner Check, follow these steps.
* Read your translation to a partner (a member of the translation team) who did not work on this passage.
* The partner can listen first for naturalness (without looking at the source text) and tell you which parts do not sound natural in your language. Together, you can think of how someone would say that meaning in your language.
* Use those ideas to change the unnatural parts of your translation to be more natural. For more information, see [Natural](../natural/01.md).
* Then read the passage to your partner again. This time, the partner can check for accuracy by listening to the translation while following along in the source text. The purpose of this step is to make sure that the translation accurately communicates the meaning of the original story or Bible passage.
* Your partner can tell you if there is any part where something was added, was missing, or was changed when compared to the source text.
* Correct those parts of the translation.
* Read your translation to a partner (a member of the translation team) who did not work on this passage.
* The partner can listen first for naturalness (without looking at the source text) and tell you which parts do not sound natural in your language. Together, you can think of how someone would say that meaning in your language.
* Use those ideas to change the unnatural parts of your translation to be more natural. For more information, see [Natural](../natural/01.md).
* Then read the passage to your partner again. This time, the partner can check for accuracy by listening to the translation while following along in the source text. The purpose of this step is to make sure that the translation accurately communicates the meaning of the original story or Bible passage.
* Your partner can tell you if there is any part where something was added, was missing, or was changed when compared to the source text.
* Correct those parts of the translation.
* It can also be useful to do accuracy checking with members of the community who are not part of the translation team. They should be speakers of the language of the translation, be respected in the community, and, if possible, know the Bible well in the source language. These checkers can help the translation team to think about the best way to translate the meaning of the story or Bible passage in their own language. Having more than one person checking a Bible passage in this way can be helpful, because often different checkers will notice different things.
* For more help with checking for accuracy, see [Accuracy-Check](../accuracy-check/01.md).
* For more help with checking for accuracy, see [Accuracy-Check](../accuracy-check/01.md).
* If you are unsure about something, ask other members of the translation team.

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### Publishing on Door43
* Throughout the translation and checking process, the translation draft will be uploaded to and maintained in a repository under the username that you have chosen on the Door43 website. This is where translationStudio and translationCore send the drafts when you tell them to upload.
* When checking has been completed and all appropriate edits have been made to the translation on door43, the checkers or church leaders will inform unfoldingWord of their desire to publish. They will provide unfoldingWord with the documents affirming that the [Pastors](../good/01.md), the [Community](../community-evaluation/01.md), and the [Church Network Leaders](../level3-approval/01.md) affirm that the translation is trustworthy. The documents also contain an affirmation of the unfoldingWord [Translation Guidelines](../../intro/translation-guidelines/01.md) and the unfoldingWord [Statement of Faith](../../intro/statement-of-faith/01.md). All translated content is expected to be in accordance with the theology of the Statement of Faith. We also expect that the translators have followed the procedures and methodologies of the Translation Guidelines. unfoldingWord has no way to verify the accuracy of the translations or the affirmations, and so we rely on the integrity of the leadership of the church networks.
* Throughout the translation and checking process, the translation draft will be uploaded to and maintained in a repository under the username that you have chosen on the Door43 website. This is where translationStudio and translationCore send the drafts when you tell them to upload.
* When checking has been completed and all appropriate edits have been made to the translation on door43, the checkers or church leaders will inform unfoldingWord of their desire to publish. They will provide unfoldingWord with the documents affirming that the [Pastors](../good/01.md), the [Community](../community-evaluation/01.md), and the [Church Network Leaders](../level3-approval/01.md) affirm that the translation is trustworthy. The documents also contain an affirmation of the unfoldingWord [Translation Guidelines](../../intro/translation-guidelines/01.md) and the unfoldingWord [Statement of Faith](../../intro/statement-of-faith/01.md). All translated content is expected to be in accordance with the theology of the Statement of Faith. We also expect that the translators have followed the procedures and methodologies of the Translation Guidelines. unfoldingWord has no way to verify the accuracy of the translations or the affirmations, and so we rely on the integrity of the leadership of the church networks.
* After obtaining these affirmations, unfoldingWord will then make a copy of the translation that is on Door43, digitally publish a static copy of it on the unfoldingWord website (see http://www.unfoldingword.org), and make it available on the unfoldingWord mobile app. A print-ready PDF will also be produced and made available for download. It will continue to be possible to change the checked version on Door43, allowing for future checking and editing.
* unfoldingWord will also need to know the version number of the source that was used for the translation. This number will be incorporated into the version number for the translation so that it will be easy to keep track of the state of the source and the translation as they both improve and change over time. For information about version numbers, see [Source Texts and Version Numbers](../../translate/translate-source-version/01.md).

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@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ This assessment method employs two types of statements. Some are “yes/no” st
**2** - strongly agree
At the end of the review, the total value of all responses in a section should be added up. If the responses accurately reflect the state of the translation, this value will provide the reviewer with an approximation of the probability that the translated chapter is of excellent quality. This assessment method is designed to be simple and provide the reviewer with an objective way to determine where the work needs improvement. *For example, if the translation scores relatively well in “Accuracy” but quite poorly in “Naturalness” and “Clarity,” then the translation team needs to do more community checking.*
At the end of the review, the total value of all responses in a section should be added up. If the responses accurately reflect the state of the translation, this value will provide the reviewer with an approximation of the probability that the translated chapter is of excellent quality. This assessment method is designed to be simple and provide the reviewer with an objective way to determine where the work needs improvement. **For example, if the translation scores relatively well in “Accuracy” but quite poorly in “Naturalness” and “Clarity,” then the translation team needs to do more community checking.**
This assessment method is intended to be used for each chapter of translated biblical content. The translation team should do an assessment of each chapter after they finish their other checks. Then the Level 2 checkers should do it again. Then the Level 3 checkers should also assess the translation with this checklist. As more detailed and extensive checking of the chapter is performed by the Church at each level, the points for the chapter should be updated from each of the first four sections (overview, naturalness, clarity, accuracy), allowing the church and community to see how the translation is improving.
@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ The process is divided into five parts: the **overview** (information about the
##### 1. Overview
*Circle either “no” or “yes” for each statement below.*
Circle either “no” or “yes” for each statement below.
**no | yes** This translation is a meaning-based translation that attempts to communicate the meaning of the original text in ways that are natural, clear, and accurate in the target language.
@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ The process is divided into five parts: the **overview** (information about the
##### 2. Naturalness: “this is *my* language”
*Circle either “0” or “1” or “2” for each statement below.*
Circle either “0” or “1” or “2” for each statement below.
This section can be strengthened by doing more community checking. (See [Language Community Check](../language-community-check/01.md))
@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ This section can be strengthened by doing more community checking. (See [Languag
##### 3. Clarity: “the meaning is clear”
*Circle either “0” or “1” or “2” for each statement below.*
Circle either “0” or “1” or “2” for each statement below.
This section can be strengthened by doing more community checking. (See [Language Community Check](../language-community-check/01.md))
@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ This section can be strengthened by doing more community checking. (See [Languag
##### 4. Accuracy: “the translation communicates what the original source text communicated”
*Circle either “0” or “1” or “2” for each statement below.*
Circle either “0” or “1” or “2” for each statement below.
This section can be strengthened by doing more accuracy checking. (See [Accuracy Check](../accuracy-check/01.md))
@ -105,12 +105,12 @@ This section can be strengthened by doing more accuracy checking. (See [Accuracy
##### 5. Church approval: “the naturalness, clarity, and accuracy of the translation is approved by the Church that speaks that language”
*Circle either “0” or “1” or “2” for each statement below.*
Circle either “0” or “1” or “2” for each statement below.
**no | yes** Church leaders who have checked this translation are first-language speakers of the target language, and include someone who understands well one of the languages in which the source text is available.
**no | yes** People from the language community––both men and women, old and young––have reviewed the translation of this chapter and agree that it is natural and clear.
**no | yes** People from the language community––both men and women, old and young––have reviewed the translation of this chapter and agree that it is natural and clear.
**no | yes** Church leaders from at least two different church networks have reviewed the translation of this chapter and agree that it is accurate.
**no | yes** Church leaders from at least two different church networks have reviewed the translation of this chapter and agree that it is accurate.
**no | yes** The leadership (or their delegates) of at least two different church networks have reviewed the translation of this chapter and endorse it as a faithful translation of this chapter of the Bible in this language.
**no | yes** The leadership (or their delegates) of at least two different church networks have reviewed the translation of this chapter and endorse it as a faithful translation of this chapter of the Bible in this language.

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checking/spelling/01.md
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@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
In order for the reader to be able to read and understand the translation easily, it is important that you (the translator) spell words consistently. This can be difficult if there is not a tradition of writing or spelling in the target language. When there are several people working on different parts of a translation, they may spell the same words differently from each other. For that reason, it is important for the translation team to meet together before they start translating to talk about how they plan to spell words.
In order for the reader to be able to read and understand the translation easily, it is important that you (the translator) spell words consistently. This can be difficult if there is not a tradition of writing or spelling in the target language. When there are several people working on different parts of a translation, they may spell the same words differently from each other. For that reason, it is important for the translation team to meet together before they start translating to talk about how they plan to spell words.
As a team, discuss the words that are difficult to spell. If the words have sounds in them that are difficult to represent, then you may need to make a change in the writing system that you are using (see [Alphabet/Orthography](../../translate/translate-alphabet/01.md)). If the sounds in the words can be represented in different ways, then the team will need to agree on how to spell them. Make a list of the agreed-upon spellings of these words in alphabetical order. Make sure that each member of the team has a copy of this list so that they can consult it when translating. Add other difficult words to the list as you come across them, and make sure that these are added to everyone's list with the same spelling. It may be helpful to use a spreadsheet to maintain your spelling list. This can be easily updated and shared electronically, or printed out periodically.
As a team, discuss the words that are difficult to spell. If the words have sounds in them that are difficult to represent, then you may need to make a change in the writing system that you are using (see [Alphabet/Orthography](../../translate/translate-alphabet/01.md)). If the sounds in the words can be represented in different ways, then the team will need to agree on how to spell them. Make a list of the agreed-upon spellings of these words in alphabetical order. Make sure that each member of the team has a copy of this list so that they can consult it when translating. Add other difficult words to the list as you come across them, and make sure that these are added to everyone’s list with the same spelling. It may be helpful to use a spreadsheet to maintain your spelling list. This can be easily updated and shared electronically, or printed out periodically.
The names of people and places in the Bible can be difficult to spell because many of them are unknown in target languages. Be sure to include these in your spelling list.

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@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ The duties of the team members are divided - it is important that each team memb
1. One or more team members listen for naturalness. If something is unnatural, at the end of reading the chunk, they recommend a more natural way to say it.
1. One or more team members follow along in the source text, noting anything that is added, is missing, or is changed. At the end of reading the chunk, they alert the team that something was added, was missing, or was changed.
1. Another team member follows along in the report mode of translationCore, noting all of the highlighted key terms in the source text. The team then discusses any key terms in the translation that seem inconsistent or inappropriate, along with any other problems that surface in the reading. If this mode is not available, this team member can look up the key terms on the team’s key term spreadsheet.
1. Another team member follows along in the report mode of translationCore, noting all of the highlighted key terms in the source text. The team then discusses any key terms in the translation that seem inconsistent or inappropriate, along with any other problems that surface in the reading. If this mode is not available, this team member can look up the key terms on the team’s key term spreadsheet.
These steps can be repeated as necessary until the team is satisfied with their translation.

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checking/toc.yaml
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@ -20,10 +20,10 @@ sections:
link: important-term-check
- title: "translationNotes Check in tC"
link: trans-note-check
- title: "Language Community Check"
- title: "Language Community Check"
sections:
- title: "Checking the Translation for Clarity and Naturalness"
link: language-community-check
link: language-community-check
- title: "Other Methods"
link: other-methods
- title: "Clear Translation"
@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ sections:
- title: "Quality Checkers"
sections:
- title: "Steps for Quality Checkers"
link: vol2-steps
link: vol2-steps
- title: "Types of Things to Check"
link: vol2-things-to-check
- title: "Questions for Quality Checkers"
@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ sections:
- title: "Complete Versification"
link: verses
- title: "Section Headings"
link: headings
link: headings
- title: "Publishing"
link: publishing
- title: "Self-Assessment Rubric"

18
checking/trans-note-check/01.md
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@ -4,21 +4,21 @@
1. Select the project (book of the Bible) that you want to check
1. Select the category or categories of Notes that you want to check
1. Select your Gateway Language
1. Click “Launch.” The verses to be checked will be listed on the left side, divided into different categories of Notes.
1. Select a verse to check, and read the Note for that verse in the blue bar. It is best to check all of the verses in the same category before moving to a new category.
1. Click “Launch.” The verses to be checked will be listed on the left side, divided into different categories of Notes.
1. Select a verse to check, and read the Note for that verse in the blue bar. It is best to check all of the verses in the same category before moving to a new category.
Some Notes refer to a more general issue that applies to the specific verse being examined. To understand this more general issue and how it applies to the current verse, read the information in the panel on the right side.
Some Notes refer to a more general issue that applies to the specific verse being examined. To understand this more general issue and how it applies to the current verse, read the information in the panel on the right side.
1. After selecting (highlighting) the translation for the word or phrase in the Note, click “Save.”
1. Consider whether or not the translation that was chosen for that word or phrase makes sense in this context.
1. Consider whether or not the translation that was chosen for that word or phrase makes sense in this context.
1. Decide whether or not the translation is correct, considering the issue that the Note talks about.
1. After considering these things, if you think that the translation is a good translation, then click “Save and Continue.”
1. After considering these things, if you think that the translation is a good translation, then click “Save and Continue.”
1. If you think that there is a problem with the verse or that the translation for the word or phrase is not good, then either edit the verse to make it better, or make a comment telling someone who will review your work what you think might be wrong with the translation here. If you have made an edit, you may need to make your selection again.
1. When you are finished making your edit or comment, click “Save and Continue.” If you prefer to only make a comment for the word or phrase and not make a selection for it, then click on the next verse in the list on the left to go on to the next verse.
1. When you are finished making your edit or comment, click “Save and Continue.” If you prefer to only make a comment for the word or phrase and not make a selection for it, then click on the next verse in the list on the left to go on to the next verse.
After a selection has been made for all of the verses in a Note category, the list of translations in that category can be reviewed. The instructions that follow are for the reviewer or for the translation team.
1. You will now be able to see a list of the translations that were made for each word or phrase under each translationNote category on the left. Choose the category that you want to review. It may be that different members of the translation team will have better knowledge in different areas. For example, one team member may be very good at reviewing metaphors, while another may be very good at understanding and correcting difficult grammar, such as passive voice constructions.
1. You will now be able to see a list of the translations that were made for each word or phrase under each translationNote category on the left. Choose the category that you want to review. It may be that different members of the translation team will have better knowledge in different areas. For example, one team member may be very good at reviewing metaphors, while another may be very good at understanding and correcting difficult grammar, such as passive voice constructions.
1. You will want to review any comments that were made by others. To do that, click the funnel symbol to the right of “Menu” at the upper left. A list will open, including the word “Comments.”
1. Click the box next to “Comments.” This will make all verses that do not have comments in them disappear.
1. To read the comments, click on the first verse in the list.
@ -26,6 +26,6 @@ After a selection has been made for all of the verses in a Note category, the li
1. Read the comment, and decide what you will do about it.
1. If you decide to make an edit to the verse, click “Cancel” and then “Edit Verse.” This will open a small screen where you can edit the verse.
1. When you are finished making the edit, select the reason for the change, then click “Save.”
1. Continue this process until you have acted on all of the comments that were left for you.
1. Continue this process until you have acted on all of the comments that were left for you.
After you have finished reviewing a Note category or a Bible book, you may still have questions about some verses or Note checks. You may want to discuss a difficult verse with others on the translation team and try to find a solution together, study more Bible translation resources, or refer the question to a Bible translation expert.
After you have finished reviewing a Note category or a Bible book, you may still have questions about some verses or Note checks. You may want to discuss a difficult verse with others on the translation team and try to find a solution together, study more Bible translation resources, or refer the question to a Bible translation expert.

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@ -9,4 +9,4 @@ It is important that your target language translation include all of the verses
### Checking for Missing Verses
Here is one way to check your translation for missing verses. After a book has been translated, import the translation into ParaText, and then run the check for “chapter/verse numbers". ParaText will give you a list of all the places in that book where verses are missing. You can then look at each of those places and decide if the verse is missing because of one of the three reasons above, or if it is missing by mistake and you need to go back and translate that verse.
Here is one way to check your translation for missing verses. After a book has been translated, import the translation into ParaText, and then run the check for “chapter/verse numbers.” ParaText will give you a list of all the places in that book where verses are missing. You can then look at each of those places and decide if the verse is missing because of one of the three reasons above, or if it is missing by mistake and you need to go back and translate that verse.

4
checking/vol2-backtranslation-guidelines/01.md
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@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
### 1. Show the Target Language Usage for Words and Clauses
For the purposes of this module, "target language" refers to the language into which the Bible draft was made, and "language of wider communication" refers to the language into which the back translation is being made.
For the purposes of this module, “target language” refers to the language into which the Bible draft was made, and “language of wider communication” refers to the language into which the back translation is being made.
#### Use the meaning of the word in context
@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ The back translator should use the same punctuation in the back translation as i
#### Express the full meaning of complex words
Sometimes words in the target language will be more complex than words in the language of wider communication. In this case, the back translator will need to represent the target language word with a longer phrase in the language of wider communication. This is necessary so that the translation checker can see as much of the meaning as possible. For example, to translate one word in the target language it might be necessary to use a phrase in the language of wider communication such as “go up” or “be lying down”. Also, many languages have words that contain more information than the equivalent words in the language of wider communication. In this case, it is most helpful if the back translator includes that additional information in parentheses, such as “we (inclusive)” or “you (feminine, plural)”.
Sometimes words in the target language will be more complex than words in the language of wider communication. In this case, the back translator will need to represent the target language word with a longer phrase in the language of wider communication. This is necessary so that the translation checker can see as much of the meaning as possible. For example, to translate one word in the target language it might be necessary to use a phrase in the language of wider communication such as “go up” or “be lying down.” Also, many languages have words that contain more information than the equivalent words in the language of wider communication. In this case, it is most helpful if the back translator includes that additional information in parentheses, such as “we (inclusive)” or “you (feminine, plural).”
### 2. Use the Language of Wider Communication Style for Sentence and Logical Structure

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@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
### Why is a back translation necessary?
The purpose of a back translation is to allow a consultant or checker of biblical material who does not understand the target language to be able to see what is in the target language translation, even though he or she does not understand the target language. In this way, the checker can "look through" the back translation and check the target language translation without knowing the target language. Therefore, the language of the back translation needs to be a language that both the back translator (that is, the person doing the back translation) and the checker understand well. Often this means that the back translator will need to translate the target language text back into the same language of wider communication that was used for the source text.
The purpose of a back translation is to allow a consultant or checker of biblical material who does not understand the target language to be able to see what is in the target language translation, even though he or she does not understand the target language. In this way, the checker can “look through” the back translation and check the target language translation without knowing the target language. Therefore, the language of the back translation needs to be a language that both the back translator (that is, the person doing the back translation) and the checker understand well. Often this means that the back translator will need to translate the target language text back into the same language of wider communication that was used for the source text.
Some people might consider this to be unnecessary, since the biblical text already exists in the source language. But remember that the purpose of the back translation is to allow the checker to see what is in the target language translation. The checker cannot see what is in the target language translation by reading the original source language text. In order to see what is in the target language translation, the back translator must make a new translation back into the language of wider communication that is based only on the target language translation. For this reason, the back translator *must not* look at the source language text when doing his back translation, but *must look only* at the target language text. In this way, the checker can identify any problems that might exist in the target language translation and work with the translator to fix those problems.

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@ -14,9 +14,9 @@ These are steps for the Quality Checkers or Church Network Delegates to follow w
#### While Checking
1. **Align the passage**. If this has not been done, then use the Aligning Tool in translationCore to align the passage with the original language. If you do not speak the target language, then work together with someone who does speak the target language. In this way, you can align the translation by combining your knowledge of the original language with the other person's knowledge of the target language. As a result of the aligning process, you will have questions about parts of the translation. Make note of these with the comment feature in translationCore so that you can ask the translation team about them when you meet, or so that the translation team can see and discuss them before you meet. For instructions about the alignment tool, go to [Alignment Tool](../alignment-tool/01.md).
1. **Ask Questions**. When you are with the translation team and you want to address something that you think might be a problem in the translation, do not make a statement to the translator that there is a problem in the translation. If you do not speak the target language, then you do not know if there is a problem or not. You only think that there might be a problem. Even if you do speak the target language, it is more polite to ask a question than to make a statement that something is wrong. You could ask something like, “What would you think about saying it this way?” and then suggest an alternative way to translate it. Then together you can discuss the different translation ideas, and you can give reasons why you think one translation alternative might be better than another. Then, after considering the alternatives, the translator or translation team must decide which way is best. For topics to ask questions about while checking a Bible translation, see [Types of Things to Check](../vol2-things-to-check/01.md).
1. **Explore the target language and culture**. The questions that you ask will be to discover what the phrase means in the target language. The best questions are the ones that help the translator to think about what the phrase means and how it is used. Useful questions are, “In what situations is this phrase used in your language?” or “Who usually says things like this, and why do they say it?” It is also useful to help the translator to think about what a person from his village would say if in the same situation as the person in the Bible.
1. **Align the passage**. If this has not been done, then use the Aligning Tool in translationCore to align the passage with the original language. If you do not speak the target language, then work together with someone who does speak the target language. In this way, you can align the translation by combining your knowledge of the original language with the other person’s knowledge of the target language. As a result of the aligning process, you will have questions about parts of the translation. Make note of these with the comment feature in translationCore so that you can ask the translation team about them when you meet, or so that the translation team can see and discuss them before you meet. For instructions about the alignment tool, go to [Alignment Tool](../alignment-tool/01.md).
1. **Ask Questions**. When you are with the translation team and you want to address something that you think might be a problem in the translation, do not make a statement to the translator that there is a problem in the translation. If you do not speak the target language, then you do not know if there is a problem or not. You only think that there might be a problem. Even if you do speak the target language, it is more polite to ask a question than to make a statement that something is wrong. You could ask something like, “What would you think about saying it this way?” and then suggest an alternative way to translate it. Then together you can discuss the different translation ideas, and you can give reasons why you think one translation alternative might be better than another. Then, after considering the alternatives, the translator or translation team must decide which way is best. For topics to ask questions about while checking a Bible translation, see [Types of Things to Check](../vol2-things-to-check/01.md).
1. **Explore the target language and culture**. The questions that you ask will be to discover what the phrase means in the target language. The best questions are the ones that help the translator to think about what the phrase means and how it is used. Useful questions are, “In what situations is this phrase used in your language?” or “Who usually says things like this, and why do they say it?” It is also useful to help the translator to think about what a person from his village would say if in the same situation as the person in the Bible.
1. **Teach the translator**. After you explore the meaning of a phrase in the target language and culture, you can tell the translator what the phrase means in the source language and culture. Then together you can decide if the phrase in the translation or the phrase he has just thought of has that same meaning or not.
#### Checking the Translation Directly

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What are the steps I should follow to check a translation as a Quality Checker?
What are the steps that I, as a Quality Checker, should follow to check a translation?

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### Types of Things to Check
These are things to check as you look at a passage of Scripture to check it for accuracy. Pastors who speak the target language can use these guidelines, as well as Quality Checkers who do not speak the target language.
These are things to check as you look at a passage of Scripture to check it for accuracy. Pastors who speak the target language can use these guidelines, as well as Quality Checkers who do not speak the target language.
1. Ask about anything that does not seem right to you, so that the translation team can explain it. If it also does not seem right to them, they can adjust the translation. In general:

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@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ There are several resources available for finding answers to questions:
* **unfoldingWord® Translation Academy** - This training manual is available at http://ufw.io/ta and has much information including:
* [Introduction](../ta-intro/01.md) - introduces this resource, the Gateway Languages strategy, and translation
* [Process Manual](../../process/process-manual/01.md) - answers the question “what next?”
* [Process Manual](../../process/process-manual/01.md) - answers the question “what next?”
* [Translation Manual](../../translate/translate-manual/01.md) - explains the basics of translation theory and provides practical translation helps
* [Checking Manual](../../checking/intro-check/01.md) - explains the basics of checking theory and best practices
* **Door43 Slack** - Join the Door43 community, post your questions to the “#helpdesk” channel, and get real-time answers to your questions (sign up at http://ufw.io/door43)

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@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
*The official version of this document is found at http://ufw.io/gl/.*
**The official version of this document is found at http://ufw.io/gl/.**
### Explanation
The objective of the gateway languages strategy is to equip 100% of the people groups that comprise the global Church with biblical content that is released from copyright restrictions and made available in a language they understand well (a language of wider communication, also known as a "gateway language") together with unrestricted translation training and tools that enable them to translate it into a language they understand fully (their own language). A “gateway language” is a language of wider communication through which second-language speakers of that language can gain access to content and translate it into their own language.
The objective of the gateway languages strategy is to equip 100% of the people groups that comprise the global Church with biblical content that is released from copyright restrictions and made available in a language they understand well (a language of wider communication, also known as a “gateway language”) together with unrestricted translation training and tools that enable them to translate it into a language they understand fully (their own language). A “gateway language” is a language of wider communication through which second-language speakers of that language can gain access to content and translate it into their own language.
The “gateway languages” at the world level comprise the smallest number of languages through which content can be delivered to every other language, via translation by bilingual speakers. For example, French is a gateway language for minority languages in Francophone Africa since content available in French can be translated by bilingual speakers from French into their own languages.

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@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
To achieve our vision of **the church in every people group and the Bible in every language**, a license is needed that gives the global church “unrestricted” access. We believe this movement will become unstoppable when the Church has unrestricted access. The [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) provides all the needed rights for translation and distribution of biblical content and ensures that the content remains unrestricted. Except where otherwise noted, all our content is licensed CC BY-SA.
*The official license for Door43 is found at https://door43.org/en/legal/license.*
**The official license for Door43 is found at https://door43.org/en/legal/license.**
### Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
@ -39,9 +39,9 @@ This principle applies to trademarks from other organizations as well. The CC BY
### Attribution Statements
On the derivative work, you must indicate what changes you have made and attribute the work as follows: “The original work by unfoldingWord is available from unfoldingword.org/uta”. You must also make your derivative work available under the same license (CC BY-SA).
On the derivative work, you must indicate what changes you have made and attribute the work as follows: “The original work by unfoldingWord is available from unfoldingword.org/uta.” You must also make your derivative work available under the same license (CC BY-SA).
Suggested attribution statement for Door43 works: “Original work created by the Door43 World Missions Community, available at http://door43.org/, and released under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). This work has been changed from the original, and the original authors have not endorsed this work.”
Suggested attribution statement for Door43 works: “Original work created by the Door43 World Missions Community, available at http://door43.org/, and released under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). This work has been changed from the original, and the original authors have not endorsed this work.”
Other works on Door43 may have different suggestions for attribution, please check the LICENSE files that are distributed with the content.

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@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
*The official version of this document is found at http://ufw.io/faith.*
**The official version of this document is found at http://ufw.io/faith.**
*The following statement of faith is in agreement with these historical creeds: [Apostles’ Creed](https://git.door43.org/Door43/en_creeds/src/master/content/apostles.md), [Nicene Creed](https://git.door43.org/Door43/en_creeds/src/master/content/nicene.md), and [Athanasian Creed](https://git.door43.org/Door43/en_creeds/src/master/content/athanasian.md); and also the [Lausanne Covenant](http://www.lausanne.org/en/documents/lausanne-covenant.html).*
The following statement of faith is in agreement with these historical creeds: [Apostles’ Creed](https://git.door43.org/Door43/en_creeds/src/master/content/apostles.md), [Nicene Creed](https://git.door43.org/Door43/en_creeds/src/master/content/nicene.md), and [Athanasian Creed](https://git.door43.org/Door43/en_creeds/src/master/content/athanasian.md); and also the [Lausanne Covenant](http://www.lausanne.org/en/documents/lausanne-covenant.html).
We believe that Christian belief can and should be divided into **essential beliefs** and **peripheral beliefs** (Romans 14).

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@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
### Welcome to unfoldingWord® Translation Academy
unfoldingWord® Translation Academy is a collection of information and instruction on the topic of Bible translation. The primary users that we have in mind are church-based mother-tongue translators. It is written in simple language wherever possible and is intended to enable anyone, anywhere to equip themselves so that they will be able to make high-quality translations of biblical content into their own language.
unfoldingWord® Translation Academy is a collection of information and instruction on the topic of Bible translation. The primary users that we have in mind are church-based mother-tongue translators. It is written in simple language wherever possible and is intended to enable anyone, anywhere to equip themselves so that they will be able to make high-quality translations of biblical content into their own language.
unfoldingWord® Translation Academy is designed to be highly flexible. It is modular in structure, making possible many pathways through the material, depending on the needs and interests of the user. Although it does recommend certain steps and procedures, it seeks to be paradigm-neutral, so that it can be used in a variety of settings and processes. It can be used in systematic, in-advance approaches, or it can be used for just-in-time learning (or both, as needed).
unfoldingWord® Translation Academy is designed to be highly flexible. It is modular in structure, making possible many pathways through the material, depending on the needs and interests of the user. Although it does recommend certain steps and procedures, it seeks to be paradigm-neutral, so that it can be used in a variety of settings and processes. It can be used in systematic, in-advance approaches, or it can be used for just-in-time learning (or both, as needed).
unfoldingWord® Translation Academy is organized into the following sections:
* [Introduction](../ta-intro/01.md) - introduces this resource, the Gateway Languages strategy, and translation
* [Process Manual](../../process/process-manual/01.md) - answers the question “what next?”
* [Process Manual](../../process/process-manual/01.md) - answers the question “what next?”
* [Translation Manual](../../translate/translate-manual/01.md) - explains the basics of translation theory and offers practical Bible translation helps
* [Checking Manual](../../checking/intro-check/01.md) - explains the basics of checking theory and best practices for checking translations

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@ -7,4 +7,4 @@ Today, people in your country do not understand Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. But t
Someone’s “mother tongue” or “heart language” means the language they first spoke as a child and the one which they use at home. This is the language in which they are most comfortable and which they use to express their deepest thoughts. We want everyone to be able to read God’s Word in their heart language, even if you speak a language that has not been written down yet!
Every language is important and valuable. Small languages are just as important as the national languages spoken in your country, and they can express meaning just as well. No one should be ashamed to speak their dialect. Sometimes, those in minority groups feel ashamed of their language and try not to use it around the people who are in the majority in their nation. But there is nothing inherently more important, more prestigious, or more educated about a national language than there is about local languages. Each language has nuances and shades of meaning that are unique. We should use the language we are most comfortable with and with which we best communicate with others.
Every language is important and valuable. Small languages are just as important as the national languages spoken in your country, and they can express meaning just as well. No one should be ashamed to speak their dialect. Sometimes, those in minority groups feel ashamed of their language and try not to use it around the people who are in the majority in their nation. But there is nothing inherently more important, more prestigious, or more educated about a national language than there is about local languages. Each language has nuances and shades of meaning that are unique. We should use the language we are most comfortable with and with which we best communicate with others.

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*The official version of this document is found at http://ufw.io/guidelines/.*
**The official version of this document is found at http://ufw.io/guidelines/.**
*The following statement on the principles and procedures used in translation is subscribed to by unfoldingWord and its contributors. All translation activities are carried out according to these common guidelines.*
The following statement on the principles and procedures used in translation is subscribed to by unfoldingWord and its contributors. All translation activities are carried out according to these common guidelines.
1. **Accurate** — Translate accurately, without detracting from, changing, or adding to the meaning of the original text. Translated content should faithfully communicate as precisely as possible the meaning of the original text as it would have been understood by the original audience. (see [Create Accurate Translations](../../translate/guidelines-accurate/01.md))
1. **Accurate** — Translate accurately, without detracting from, changing, or adding to the meaning of the original text. Translated content should faithfully communicate as precisely as possible the meaning of the original text as it would have been understood by the original audience. (see [Create Accurate Translations](../../translate/guidelines-accurate/01.md))
1. **Clear** — Use whatever language structures are necessary to achieve the highest level of comprehension. This includes rearranging the form of a text and using as many or as few terms as necessary to communicate the original meaning as clearly as possible. (see [Create Clear Translations](../../translate/guidelines-clear/01.md))
1. **Natural** — Use language forms that are effective and that reflect the way your language is used in corresponding contexts. (see [Create Natural Translations](../../translate/guidelines-natural/01.md))
1. **Faithful** — Avoid any political, denominational, ideological, social, cultural, or theological bias in your translation. Use key terms that are faithful to the vocabulary of the original biblical languages. Use equivalent common language terms for the biblical words that describe the relationship between God the Father and God the Son. These may be clarified, as needed, in footnotes or other supplemental resources. (see [Create Faithful Translations](../../translate/guidelines-faithful/01.md))

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@ -3,11 +3,11 @@ The vision of unfoldingWord is **the church in every people group and the Bible
Jesus commanded his disciples to make disciples of EVERY people group:
> “Jesus came to them and spoke to them and said, ‘All authority has been given to me in heaven and on earth. Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations. Baptize them into the name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Teach them to obey all the things that I have commanded you. And see, I am with you always, even to the end of the world.’” (Matthew 28:18-20 ULT)
> Jesus came to them and spoke to them, saying, “All authority has been given to me in heaven and on the earth. Go, therefore, and make disciples of all the nations. Baptize them into the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. Teach them to obey all the things that I have commanded you. See, I am with you always, even to the end of the age.” (Matthew 28:18-20 ULT)
We have the promise that people from EVERY language will be in heaven:
> “After these things I saw, and behold, there was a great crowd, which no one was able to number, out of every nation, tribe, people, and language, standing before the throne and before the Lamb.” (Revelation 7:9 ULT)
> “After these things I looked, and there was a huge multitude that no one could count—from every nation, tribe, people, and language—standing before the throne and in front of the Lamb.” (Revelation 7:9 ULT)
Understanding the Word of God in one’s heart language is important:
@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Understanding the Word of God in one’s heart language is important:
### How Do We Do This?
How do we accomplish the goal of ***the church in every people group and the Bible in every language***?
How do we accomplish the goal of **the church in every people group and the Bible in every language**?
* [Church-Centric Bible Translation](https://www.ccbt.bible/) - By working with other like-minded churches and organizations
* [Statement of Faith](../statement-of-faith/01.md) - By working with those who have the same beliefs
@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ How do we accomplish the goal of ***the church in every people group and the Bib
#### Content
We create and make available for translation free and unrestricted biblical content. See https://www.unfoldingword.org/content for a complete list of resources and translations. Here are a few samples:
We create and make available for translation free and unrestricted biblical content. See https://www.unfoldingword.org/content for a complete list of resources and translations. Here are a few samples:
* **unfoldingWord® Open Bible Stories** - unrestricted visual Bible stories comprising 50 key stories of the Bible, from Creation to Revelation, for evangelism and discipleship, in print, audio, and video (see https://www.openbiblestories.org/).
* **unfoldingWord® Literal Text** - a ‘form-centric’ translation of the Bible *for translators*. It increases the translator’s understanding of the lexical and grammatical composition of the underlying text by adhering closely to the word order and structure of the originals (see https://www.unfoldingword.org/ult).

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@ -22,12 +22,12 @@ dublin_core:
description: 'A modular handbook that provides a condensed explanation of Bible translation and checking principles that the global Church has implicitly affirmed define trustworthy translations. It enables translators to learn how to create trustworthy translations of the Bible in their own language.'
format: 'text/markdown'
identifier: 'ta'
issued: '2020-07-23'
issued: '2020-10-29'
language:
identifier: 'en'
title: 'English'
direction: 'ltr'
modified: '2020-07-23'
modified: '2020-10-29'
publisher: 'unfoldingWord®'
relation:
- 'en/ust'
@ -39,11 +39,11 @@ dublin_core:
-
identifier: 'ta'
language: 'en'
version: '13'
version: '14'
subject: 'Translation Academy'
title: 'unfoldingWord® Translation Academy'
type: 'man'
version: '14'
version: '15'
checking:
checking_entity:

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### Publishing Overview
Once a work has been uploaded to Door43, it is automatically available online under your user account. This is referred to as self-publishing. You will have access to a web version of your project at http://door43.org/u/user_name/project_name (where user_name is your username and project_name is your translation project). Both translationStudio and translationCore will give you the correct link when you upload. You can also browse all works on http://door43.org.
Once a work has been uploaded to Door43, it is automatically available online under your user account. This is referred to as self-publishing. You will have access to a web version of your project at http://door43.org/u/user_name/project_name (where user_name is your username and project_name is your translation project). Both translationStudio and translationCore will give you the correct link when you upload. You can also browse all works on http://door43.org.
From your Door43 project page you can:

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Biblical content is worthless unless it is distributed and used. One advantage of using the Door43 translation and publishing platform is that it provides multiple, simple ways of distributing content. On Door43:
* You can safely store your translation
* People can see your translation
* You can safely store your translation
* People can see your translation
* People can leave comments and suggestions to improve your translation
* People can download your translation to read, print, and share with others
@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ The biggest factor that enables distribution of content is the [Open License](..
* **Share** — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
* **Adapt** — remix, transform, and build upon the material
for any purpose, even commercial, without cost. "Freely you have received; freely give." (Matthew 10:8)
for any purpose, even commercial, without cost. “Freely you have received; freely give.” (Matthew 10:8)
For ways to share your translations both online and offline, see [Sharing Content](../share-content/01.md).

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### Welcome
Welcome to Bible translation! We are pleased that you desire to translate God's message into the language of your people, whether this is through translaton of Bible stories or books of Scripture. This Process Manual is a step-by-step guide to help translation teams know what they need to do from the start of a project to its completion. This guide will help a translation team from the initial setup to the final publishing of translated and checked content.
Welcome to Bible translation! We are pleased that you desire to translate God’s message into the language of your people, whether this is through translaton of Bible stories or books of Scripture. This Process Manual is a step-by-step guide to help translation teams know what they need to do from the start of a project to its completion. This guide will help a translation team from the initial setup to the final publishing of translated and checked content.
### Getting Started

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### How to Get translationCore®
translationCore® is an open-source and open-licensed software program for checking Bible translations. It is completely free to use. The latest version of translationCore for desktop or laptop computers (Windows, Mac, or Linux) is available from https://translationcore.com/. To install the program, click on “Download” to get the latest release. Note that you may also copy the installation file to other computers to share translationCore with others without using the internet.
translationCore® is an open-source and open-licensed software program for checking Bible translations. It is completely free to use. The latest version of translationCore for desktop or laptop computers (Windows, Mac, or Linux) is available from https://translationcore.com/. To install the program, click on “Download” to get the latest release. Note that you may also copy the installation file to other computers to share translationCore with others without using the internet.
### How to Set Up translationCore®
@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ For documentation on how to use translationCore, please see https://tc-documenta
#### Log In
To start, you will need to log in with a user name. If your translation is on Door43, use your Door43 user name. If you do not want to use the internet, then you can enter any name that you want to use, either real or a pseudonym.
To start, you will need to log in with a user name. If your translation is on Door43, use your Door43 user name. If you do not want to use the internet, then you can enter any name that you want to use, either real or a pseudonym.
#### Choose a Project
@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ If you logged in with your Door43 user name, translationCore will know which tra
#### Choose a Tool
translationCore currently contains three checking tools:
translationCore currently contains three checking tools:
* [translationWords Tool](../../checking/important-term-check/01.md)
* [translationNotes Tool](../../checking/trans-note-check/01.md)
@ -26,4 +26,4 @@ Instructions for using each tool can be found by clicking on the name of the too
### After Using translationCore®
At any point, you may upload your work to [Door43](https://git.door43.org) by returning to the project list and clicking on the three-dot menu next to the project that you want to upload and choosing "Upload to Door43". You can also save your project to a file on your computer. Once uploaded, Door43 will keep your work in a repository under your user name and you can access your work there (see [Publishing](../intro-publishing/01.md)).
At any point, you may upload your work to [Door43](https://git.door43.org) by returning to the project list and clicking on the three-dot menu next to the project that you want to upload and choosing “Upload to Door43.” You can also save your project to a file on your computer. Once uploaded, Door43 will keep your work in a repository under your user name and you can access your work there (see [Publishing](../intro-publishing/01.md)).

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@ -22,8 +22,8 @@ There are many decisions the translation team will need to make, many of them ri
* [Alphabet/Orthography](../../translate/translate-alphabet/01.md) - Many languages have alphabet decisions that need to be made
* [Decisions for Writing Your Language](../../translate/writing-decisions/01.md) - Writing style, punctuation, translating names, spelling, and other decisions have to be made
* [Translation Style](../../translate/choose-style/01.md) - The translation committee needs to agree on the style of the translation in the sense of how much they want it to imitate the form of the source, how much borrowing of words is allowed, and other topics. See also this section on making the translation [Acceptable](../../checking/acceptable/01.md).
* [Choosing What to Translate](../../translate/translation-difficulty/01.md) - Books should be chosen based on the needs of the church and the difficulty of translation
* [Choosing What to Translate](../../translate/translation-difficulty/01.md) - Books should be chosen based on the needs of the church and the difficulty of translation
After the translation committee makes these decisions, it is good to write them down in a document that everyone involved in the translation can read. This will help everyone to make similar translation decisions and will avoid further arguments about these things.
After the translation committee makes these decisions, it is good to write them down in a document that everyone involved in the translation can read. This will help everyone to make similar translation decisions and will avoid further arguments about these things.
After choosing the translation team, it will be time to start giving them [Translation Training](../pretranslation-training/01.md).

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### Installing tS for Mobile
The mobile (Android) edition of translationStudio is available from the [Google Play Store](https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.translationstudio.androidapp ) or via direct download from http://ufw.io/ts/. If you install from the Play Store, then you will be notified by the Play Store when a new version is available. Note that you may also copy the installation file (apk) to other devices to share translationStudio with others without using the internet.
The mobile (Android) edition of translationStudio is available from the [Google Play Store](https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.translationstudio.androidapp ) or via direct download from http://ufw.io/ts/. If you install from the Play Store, then you will be notified by the Play Store when a new version is available. Note that you may also copy the installation file (apk) to other devices to share translationStudio with others without using the internet.
### Installing tS for Desktop
The latest version of translationStudio for desktop or laptop computers (Windows, Mac, or Linux) is available from http://ufw.io/ts/. To install the program, navigate to the “Desktop” section and download the latest release. Note that you may also copy the installation file to other computers to share translationStudio with others without using the internet.
The latest version of translationStudio for desktop or laptop computers (Windows, Mac, or Linux) is available from http://ufw.io/ts/. To install the program, navigate to the “Desktop” section and download the latest release. Note that you may also copy the installation file to other computers to share translationStudio with others without using the internet.
### Using tS
Once installed, both editions of translationStudio are designed to work similarly. You *do not* need an internet connection to use translationStudio! When using translationStudio for the first time, the software will take you to a screen where you must sign an agreement to the [Statement of Faith](../../intro/statement-of-faith/01.md), the [Translation Guidelines](../../intro/translation-guidelines/01.md), and the [Open License](../../intro/open-license/01.md).
Once installed, both editions of translationStudio are designed to work similarly. You *do not* need an internet connection to use translationStudio! When using translationStudio for the first time, the software will take you to a screen where you must sign an agreement to the [Statement of Faith](../../intro/statement-of-faith/01.md), the [Translation Guidelines](../../intro/translation-guidelines/01.md), and the [Open License](../../intro/open-license/01.md).
After this first-use screen, the software will then take you to the Home screen where you can create a new project. You will need to give the project a name (usually a book of the Bible), identify the project type (usually Bible or Open Bible Stories), and identify the target language. Once your project is created, you can start translating. Make sure that you understand the [Principles of Good Translation](../pretranslation-training/01.md) and know how to use the [Translation Helps](../../translate/translate-help/01.md) that are built into translationStudio. These will help you to gain a better understanding of the source text and how to translate it. Note that your work is automatically saved. You may also choose to back up, share, or upload your work at various intervals (use the menu to access these functions). For guidelines on how to start translating, see [Translation Overview](../translation-overview/01.md) and [Making a First Draft](../../translate/first-draft/01.md).
After this first-use screen, the software will then take you to the Home screen where you can create a new project. You will need to give the project a name (usually a book of the Bible), identify the project type (usually Bible or Open Bible Stories), and identify the target language. Once your project is created, you can start translating. Make sure that you understand the [Principles of Good Translation](../pretranslation-training/01.md) and know how to use the [Translation Helps](../../translate/translate-help/01.md) that are built into translationStudio. These will help you to gain a better understanding of the source text and how to translate it. Note that your work is automatically saved. You may also choose to back up, share, or upload your work at various intervals (use the menu to access these functions). For guidelines on how to start translating, see [Translation Overview](../translation-overview/01.md) and [Making a First Draft](../../translate/first-draft/01.md).
For more information on how to use translationStudio, please see the documentation at https://ts-info.readthedocs.io/.
### After Using tS
1. Make sure that you have a translation team that can help you check your work (see [Training Before Checking Begins](../prechecking-training/01.md)).
1. At any point, you may upload your work to [Door43](https://git.door43.org) by clicking on the three-dot menu and choosing Upload/Export. You will need to create a user name on Door43.
1. At any point, you may upload your work to [Door43](https://git.door43.org) by clicking on the three-dot menu and choosing Upload/Export. You will need to create a user name on Door43.
1. Once uploaded, Door43 will keep your work in a repository under your user name and you can access your work there (see [Publishing](../intro-publishing/01.md)).

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### Sharing Content from tS and tC
Sharing content that is in translationStudio is easy. For offine sharing, use the Backup feature from the tS menu. For online sharing, use the Upload feature from the tS menu. In translationCore, use the three-dot menu on the Projects page. For offline sharing, use either Export to USFM or Export to CSV. For online sharing, use Upload to Door43.
Sharing content that is in translationStudio is easy. For offine sharing, use the Backup feature from the tS menu. For online sharing, use the Upload feature from the tS menu. In translationCore, use the three-dot menu on the Projects page. For offline sharing, use either Export to USFM or Export to CSV. For online sharing, use Upload to Door43.
### Sharing Content on Door43
If you upload your work from translationStudio or translationCore, then it will automatically appear online on Door43. All of your uploaded content will appear under your user account. For example, if your username is *test_user* then you may find all your work at https://git.door43.org/test_user/. You can share your work with others online by giving them the link to the projects you have uploaded.
If you upload your work from translationStudio or translationCore, then it will automatically appear online on Door43. All of your uploaded content will appear under your user account. For example, if your username is *test_user* then you may find all your work at https://git.door43.org/test_user/. You can share your work with others online by giving them the link to the projects you have uploaded.
### Sharing Content Offline
You can also generate and download documents from your project pages on Door43. Once you have downloaded these, you can transfer them to others however you would like, including printing and distributing paper copies.
You can also generate and download documents from your project pages on Door43. Once you have downloaded these, you can transfer them to others however you would like, including printing and distributing paper copies.

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### OL Translation Process
For "Other Languages" (OLs, languages other than Gateway Languages), which are most of the languages of the world, the following is the process of translation that unfoldingWord recommends and supports with translation resources and tools.
For “Other Languages” (OLs, languages other than Gateway Languages), which are most of the languages of the world, the following is the process of translation that unfoldingWord recommends and supports with translation resources and tools.
After [Setting up a Translation Committee](../setup-team/01.md) and training translators in [Translation Principles](../pretranslation-training/01.md) and how to use [translationStudio](../setup-ts/01.md), we recommend that you follow this process:
@ -27,6 +27,6 @@ After finishing Open Bible Stories, you will have gained enough skill and experi
8. Check the translation with [Leaders of Church Networks](../../checking/level3/01.md).
9. [Publish](../intro-publishing/01.md) the translation on Door43, in print, and in audio, as desired.
Repeat these steps with each Bible book.
Repeat these steps with each Bible book.
Plan to have someone from the translation team continue to maintain the translation on [Door43](http://git.door43.org), editing it to correct errors and improve it according to suggestions from the church community. The translation can easily be downloaded and reprinted as often as desired.
Plan to have someone from the translation team continue to maintain the translation on [Door43](http://git.door43.org), editing it to correct errors and improve it according to suggestions from the church community. The translation can easily be downloaded and reprinted as often as desired.

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### Description
The term "biblical imagery" refers in a general way to any kind of language in which an image is paired with an idea such that the image represents the idea. This general definition is applied most directly to [metaphors](../figs-metaphor/01.md) but can also includes [similes](../figs-simile/01.md), [metonymies](../figs-metonymy/01.md), and cultural models.
The term “biblical imagery” refers in a general way to any kind of language in which an image is paired with an idea such that the image represents the idea. This general definition is applied most directly to [metaphors](../figs-metaphor/01.md) but can also include [similes](../figs-simile/01.md), [metonymies](../figs-metonymy/01.md), and cultural models.
We have included several modules about biblical imagery in order to tell about the various patterns of imagery found in the Bible. The patterns of pairings found in the Bible are often unique to the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is useful to recognize these patterns because they repeatedly present translators with the same problems regarding how to translate them. Once translators think through how they will handle these translation challenges, they will be ready to meet them anywhere they see the same patterns. See [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) for links to pages showing common patterns of pairings between ideas in similes and metaphors.
### Common Types of Biblical Imagery
A **simile** is an explicit figure of speech that compares two items using one of the specific terms "like", "as", or "than".
A **simile** is an explicit figure of speech that compares two items using one of the specific terms “like,” “as,” or “than.”
A **metonymy** is an implicit figure of speech that refers to an item (either physical or abstract) not by its own name, but by the name of something closely related to it. See [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](../bita-part2/01.md) for a list of some common metonymies in the Bible.
A **metaphor** is a figure of speech which uses a physical image to refer to an abstract idea, either explicitly or implicitly. In our translation helps, we distinguish between three different types of metaphors: [simple metaphors](../figs-simetaphor/01.md), [extended metaphors](../figs-exmetaphor/01.md), and [complex metaphors](../figs-cometaphor/01.md).
A **metaphor** is a figure of speech which uses a physical image to refer to an abstract idea, either explicitly or implicitly. In our translation helps, we distinguish between three different types of metaphors: [simple metaphors](../figs-simetaphor/01.md), [extended metaphors](../figs-exmetaphor/01.md), and [complex metaphors](../figs-cometaphor/01.md).
In a metaphor, the **Image** is the physical term (object, event, action, etc.) that is used to refer to an abstract term (idea, concept, action, etc.).
In a metaphor, the **Idea** is the abstract term (concept, action, etc.) which is referred to by the physical term (object, event, action, etc.). Often, the Idea of a metaphor is not explicitly stated in the Bible, but only implied from the context.
A **simple metaphor** is an explicit metaphor in which a single physical image is used to refer to a single abstract idea. For example, when Jesus said "I am the light of the world" (John 8:12 ULT), he was using the Image of "light" to refer to an abstract Idea about himself. NOTE: as with many simple metaphors in the Bible, the Image is explicitly stated, but the Idea is implied from the context.
A **simple metaphor** is an explicit metaphor in which a single physical image is used to refer to a single abstract idea. For example, when Jesus said “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12 ULT), he was using the Image of “light” to refer to an abstract Idea about himself. NOTE: As with many simple metaphors in the Bible, the Image is explicitly stated, but the Idea is implied from the context.
An **extended metaphor** is an explicit metaphor that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. For example, in Psalm 23 the psalmist writes "Yahweh is my shepherd" and then goes on to describe multiple physical aspects of the relationship between sheep and a shepherd as well as multiple abstract ideas concerning the relationship between himself and Yahweh.
An **extended metaphor** is an explicit metaphor that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. For example, in Psalm 23 the psalmist writes “Yahweh is my shepherd” and then goes on to describe multiple physical aspects of the relationship between sheep and a shepherd as well as multiple abstract ideas concerning the relationship between himself and Yahweh.
A **complex metaphor** is an implicit metaphor that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. *Complex metaphors are very similar to extended metaphors, except that they are implied by the text rather than explicitly stated. Because of this, complex metaphors can be very difficult to identify in the Bible.* For example, in Ephesians 6:10-20 the apostle Paul describes how a Christian should prepare to resist temptation by comparing abstract ideas to pieces of armor worn by a soldier. The term "full armor of God" is not a combination of several simple metaphors (where the belt represents truth, the helmet represents salvation, etc.). Rather, the unstated complex metaphor PREPARATION IS GETTING DRESSED underlies the entire description as a whole. The apostle Paul was using the physical Image of a soldier putting on his armor (that is, "GETTING DRESSED") to refer to the abstract Idea (that is, "PREPARATION") of a Christian preparing himself to resist temptation.
A **complex metaphor** is an implicit metaphor that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. Complex metaphors are very similar to extended metaphors, except that they are implied by the text rather than explicitly stated. Because of this, complex metaphors can be very difficult to identify in the Bible. For example, in Ephesians 6:10-20 the apostle Paul describes how a Christian should prepare to resist temptation by comparing abstract ideas to pieces of armor worn by a soldier. The term “full armor of God” is not a combination of several simple metaphors (where the belt represents truth, the helmet represents salvation, etc.). Rather, the unstated complex metaphor PREPARATION IS GETTING DRESSED underlies the entire description as a whole. The apostle Paul was using the physical Image of a soldier putting on his armor (that is, “GETTING DRESSED”) to refer to the abstract Idea (that is, “PREPARATION”) of a Christian preparing himself to resist temptation.
In our translation helps, we use the term **cultural model** to refer to either an extended metaphor or a complex metaphor that is widely used within a specific culture which may or may not be used within a different culture. See [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md) for a list of some cultural models found in the Bible.
In our translation helps, we use the term **cultural model** to refer to either an extended metaphor or a complex metaphor that is widely used within a specific culture but which may or may not be used within a different culture. See [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md) for a list of some cultural models found in the Bible.
### Cultural Models
Cultural models are complex metaphors that people use to help them imagine and talk about various aspects of life and behavior. For example, Americans often think of many things, including marriage and friendship, as if they were machines. Americans might say, “His marriage is breaking down,” or “Their friendship is going full speed ahead.” Often, cultural models that are used in the Bible are not explicitly stated but must be learned by reading large amounts of text and looking for images and metaphors that are repeated in many different contexts.
Cultural models are complex metaphors that people use to help them imagine and talk about various aspects of life and behavior. For example, Americans often think of many things, including marriage and friendship, as if they were machines. Americans might say, “His marriage is breaking up,” or “Their friendship is going full speed ahead.” Often, cultural models that are used in the Bible are not explicitly stated, but must be learned by reading large amounts of text and looking for images and metaphors that are repeated in many different contexts.
For example, both the Old Testament and New Testament describe God as if he were a shepherd and his people were sheep. This is a cultural model that is used frequently in the Bible, and it appears as an extended metaphor in Psalm 23. In the culture of ancient Israel, GOD IS MODELED AS A SHEPHERD.
> ***Yahweh is my shepherd***; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULT)
> He led his own people out ***like sheep*** and guided them through the wilderness ***like a flock***. (Psalm 78:52 ULT)
> ***I am the good shepherd***. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep. (John 10:11 ULT)
> Then when ***the Chief Shepherd*** is revealed, you will receive an unfading crown of glory. (1 Peter 5:4 ULT)
> **Yahweh is my shepherd**; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULT)
Another cultural model is found in Psalm 24, where the psalmist describes God as if he were a mighty and glorious king coming into a city. In the culture of ancient Israel, GOD IS MODELED AS A KING.
> He led his own people out **like sheep** and guided them through the wilderness **like a flock**. (Psalm 78:52 ULT)
> Lift up your heads, you gates; be lifted up, everlasting doors, so that the King of glory may come in! Who is this King of glory? Yahweh, strong and mighty; Yahweh, mighty in battle. (Psalm 24:7-8 ULT)
> Someone who breaks open their way for them will go ahead of them. They break through the gate and go out; ***their king*** will pass on before them. ***Yahweh*** will be at their head. (Micah 2:8 ULT)
> Out of his mouth goes a sharp sword, so that with it he might strike the nations, and he will shepherd them with an iron rod. He tramples in the winepress of the fury of the wrath of ***God Almighty***. He has a name written on his robe and on his thigh: “***King of kings and Lord of lords***." (Revelation 19:15-16 ULT)
> **I am the good shepherd**. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep. (John 10:11 ULT)
> Then when **the Chief Shepherd** is revealed, you will receive an unfading crown of glory. (1 Peter 5:4 ULT)
Another cultural model is found in Psalm 24, where the psalmist describes God as if he were a mighty and glorious king coming into a city. In the culture of ancient Israel, GOD IS MODELED AS A KING.
> Lift up your heads, you gates; be lifted up, everlasting doors, so that the **King of glory** may come in! Who is this **King of glory**? Yahweh, strong and mighty; Yahweh, mighty in battle. (Psalm 24:7-8 ULT)
>
> Someone who breaks open their way for them will go ahead of them. They break through the gate and go out; **their king** will pass on before them. **Yahweh** will be at their head. (Micah 2:8 ULT)
>
> Out of his mouth goes a sharp sword, so that with it he might strike the nations, and he will shepherd them with an iron rod. He tramples in the winepress of the fury of the wrath of **God Almighty**. He has a name written on his robe and on his thigh: “**King of kings and Lord of lords**.” (Revelation 19:15-16 ULT)
This cultural model was very common in ancient Near Eastern cultures, and the ancient Israelites who read the Bible would have understood it easily because their nation was ruled by a king. However, many modern nations are not ruled by kings, so this specific cultural model is not as easily understood in many modern cultures.

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Some common [metonymies](../figs-metonymy/01.md) and [metaphors](../figs-metaphor/01.md) from the Bible involving animals are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters identifies an Image that represents an Idea. The specific word of the Image may not appear in every verse that uses the Image, but the text will communicate somehow the concept of the Image.
Some common [metonymies](../figs-metonymy/01.md) and [metaphors](../figs-metaphor/01.md) from the Bible involving animals are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters identifies an Image that represents an Idea. The specific word of the Image may not appear in every verse that uses the Image, but the text will somehow communicate the concept of the Image.
#### An ANIMAL HORN represents strength
> God is my rock. I take refuge in him.
> He is my shield, the horn of my salvation, my stronghold, and my refuge,
> God is my rock. I take refuge in him.
> He is my shield, the **horn** of my salvation, my stronghold, and my refuge,
> the one who saves me from violence. (2 Samuel 22:3 ULT)
The “horn of my salvation” is the strong one who saves me.
> There I will make the horn of David to grow. (Psalm 132:17 ULT)
> There I will make a **horn** to sprout for David. (Psalm 132:17a ULT)
The “horn of David” is King David’s military strength.
The horn is King David’s military strength.
#### BIRDS represent people who are in danger and defenseless
This is because some birds are easily trapped.
> My enemies have relentlessly hunted me like a bird, without cause. (Lamentations 3:52 ULT)
> Save yourself like a gazelle from the hand of the hunter,
> like a bird from the hand of the fowler. (Proverbs 6:5 ULT)
> I have been hunted like a **bird** by those who were my enemies; they hunted me without a reason. (Lamentations 3:52 ULT)
> Save yourself like a gazelle from the hand of the hunter,
> like a **bird** from the hand of the fowler. (Proverbs 6:5 ULT)
A fowler is a person who catches birds, and a snare is a small trap.
> We have escaped like a bird out of the snare of the fowlers;
> We have escaped like a **bird** out of the snare of the fowlers;
> the snare has been broken, and we have escaped. (Psalm 124:7 ULT)
#### BIRDS THAT EAT MEAT represent enemies who attack swiftly
In Habakkuk and Hosea, Israel’s enemies who would come and attack them were compared to an eagle.
> and their horsemen come from a great distance—they fly like an eagle hurrying to eat! (Habakkuk 1:8 ULT)
> An eagle is coming over the house of Yahweh.
> …Israel has rejected what is good,
> and the enemy will pursue him. (Hosea 8:1,3 ULT)
In Habakkuk and Hosea, Israel’s enemies who would come and attack them were compared to an eagle.
> Their horsemen come from a great distance—they fly like an **eagle** hurrying to eat! (Habakkuk 1:8 ULT)
> An **eagle** is coming over the house of Yahweh.
> … Israel has rejected what is good,
> and the enemy will pursue him. (Hosea 8:1, 3 ULT)
In Isaiah, God called a certain foreign king a bird of prey because he would come quickly and attack Israel’s enemies.
> I call a bird of prey from the east, the man of my choice from a distant land; (Isaiah 46:11 ULT)
> I call a **bird of prey** from the east, the man of my choice from a distant land. (Isaiah 46:11a ULT)
#### A BIRD’S WINGS represent protection
This is because birds spread their wings over their chicks to protect them from danger.
> Protect me like the apple of your eye; hide me under the shadow of your wings
> Protect me like the apple of your eye; hide me under the shadow of **your wings**
> from the presence of the wicked ones who assault me, my enemies who surround me. (Psalms 17:8-9 ULT)
Here is another example of how the wings represent protection.
> Be merciful to me, God, be merciful to me,
> for I take refuge in you until these troubles are over.
> I stay under your wings for protection until this destruction is over. (Psalm 57:1 ULT)
> Be merciful to me, God, be merciful to me,
> for I take refuge in you until these troubles are over.
> I stay under **your wings** for protection until this destruction is over. (Psalm 57:1 ULT)
#### DANGEROUS ANIMALS represent dangerous people
In Psalms, David referred to his enemies as lions.
> My life is among lions;
> I am among those who are ready to devour me.
> I am among people whose teeth are spears and arrows,
> and whose tongues are sharp swords.
> Be exalted, God, above the heavens (Psalm 57:4 ULT)
> My life is among **lions**;
> I am among those who are ready to devour me.
> I am among people whose teeth are spears and arrows,
> and whose tongues are sharp swords. (Psalm 57:4 ULT)
Peter called the devil a roaring lion.
> Be sober, be watchful. Your adversary—the devil—like a roaring lion is stalking around, looking for someone to devour. (1 Peter 5:8 ULT)
> Be sober, be watchful. Your adversary—the devil—like a roaring **lion** is stalking around, looking for someone to devour. (1 Peter 5:8 ULT)
In Matthew, Jesus called false prophets wolves because of the harm they did to people by their lies.
> Beware of false prophets, those who come to you in sheep’s clothing, but are truly ravenous wolves. (Matthew 7:15 ULT)
> Beware of false prophets, those who come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravenous **wolves**. (Matthew 7:15 ULT)
In Matthew, John the Baptist called the religious leaders poisonous snakes because of the harm they did by teaching lies.
> But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming to him for baptism, he said to them, “You offspring of poisonous snakes, who warned you to flee from the wrath that is coming? (Matthew 3:7 ULT)
> But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming to him for baptism, he said to them, “You offspring of **vipers**, who warned you to flee from the wrath that is coming? (Matthew 3:7 ULT)
#### EAGLES represent strength
> He satisfies your life with good things
> so that your youth is renewed like the eagle. (Psalm 103:5 ULT)
> He satisfies your life with good things
> so that your youth is renewed like the **eagle**. (Psalm 103:5 ULT)
> For Yahweh says this, “See, the enemy will come flying like an eagle, spreading out his wings over Moab.” (Jeremiah 48:40 ULT)
> For Yahweh says this, “See, the enemy will come flying like an **eagle**, spreading out his wings over Moab.” (Jeremiah 48:40 ULT)
#### SHEEP or a FLOCK OF SHEEP represents people who need to be led or are in danger
> My people have been a lost flock. Their shepherds have led them astray in the mountains; (Jeremiah 50:6 ULT)
> He led his own people out like sheep and guided them through the wilderness like a flock. (Psalm 78:52 ULT)
> Israel is a sheep scattered and driven away by lions. First the king of Assyria devoured him;
> My people have been a lost **flock**. Their shepherds have led them astray in the mountains. (Jeremiah 50:6 ULT)
> He led his own people out like **sheep** and guided them through the wilderness like a **flock**. (Psalm 78:52 ULT)
> Israel is a **sheep** scattered and driven away by lions. First the king of Assyria devoured him;
> then after this, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon broke his bones. (Jeremiah 50:17 ULT)
> See, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves, so be as wise as serpents and harmless as doves. Watch out for people! They will deliver you up to councils, and they will whip you in their synagogues. (Matthew 10:16 ULT)
> See, I send you out as **sheep** in the midst of wolves, so be as wise as serpents and harmless as doves. (Matthew 10:16 ULT)

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#### A FARMER represents God, and the VINEYARD represents his chosen people
> My well beloved had a vineyard on a very fertile hill.
> He spaded it and removed the stones, and planted it with the choicest vine.
> He built a tower in the middle of it, and also built a winepress.
> He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced wild grapes. (Isaiah 5:1-2)
> For the kingdom of heaven is like a landowner who went out early in the morning to hire workers for his vineyard. (Matthew 20:1 ULT)
> There was a man, a person with extensive land. He planted a vineyard, set a hedge about it, dug a winepress in it, built a watchtower, and rented it out to vine growers. Then he went into another country. (Matthew 21:33 ULT)
> My well beloved had a **vineyard** on a very fertile hill.
> He spaded it, removed the stones, and planted it with an excellent kind of vine.
> He built a tower in the middle of it, and also built a winepress.
> He waited for it to produce grapes, but it only produced wild grapes. (Isaiah 5:1-2)
>
> For the kingdom of heaven is like a landowner who went out early in the morning to hire workers for his **vineyard**. (Matthew 20:1 ULT)
>
> There was a man, a landowner. He planted a **vineyard**, set a hedge about it, dug a winepress in it, built a watchtower, and rented it out to vine growers. Then he went into another country. (Matthew 21:33 ULT)
#### The GROUND represents people’s hearts (inner being)
> For Yahweh says this to each person in Judah and Jerusalem: ‘Plow your own ground,
> and do not sow among thorns. (Jeremiah 4:3 ULT)
> When anyone hears the word of the kingdom but does not understand it.…This is the seed that was sown beside the road. What was sown on rocky ground is the person who hears the word and immediately receives it with joy….What was sown among the thorn plants, this is the person who hears the word, but the cares of the world and the deceitfulness of riches choke the word.…What was sown on the good soil, this is the person who hears the word and understands it. (Matthew 13:19-23 ULT)
> Break up your unplowed ground,
> for it is time to seek Yahweh.…(Hosea 10:12 ULT)
> For Yahweh says this to each person in Judah and Jerusalem: ‘Plow your own **ground**, and do not sow among thorns. (Jeremiah 4:3 ULT)
>
> When anyone hears the word of the kingdom but does not understand it … This is the seed that was sown **beside the road**. That which was sown on **rocky ground** is the person who hears the word and immediately receives it with joy … That which was sown **among the thorn plants**, this is the person who hears the word, but the cares of the world and the deceitfulness of riches choke the word…That which was sown on the **good soil**, this is the person who hears the word and understands it. (Matthew 13:19-23 ULT)
>
> Break up your **unplowed ground**,
> for it is time to seek Yahweh. Hosea 10:12 ULT)
#### SOWING represents actions or attitudes, and REAPING represents judgment or reward
> Based on what I have observed, those who plow iniquity
> and sow trouble reap the same. (Job 4:8 ULT)
> Do not be deceived. God is not mocked. Whatever a man plants, that is what he will also harvest. For he who sows seed to his own sinful nature will harvest destruction, but he who sows seed to the Spirit, will harvest eternal life from the Spirit. (Galatians 6:7-8 ULT)
> According to what I have seen, those who plow iniquity and **sow** trouble **reap** it. (Job 4:8 ULT)
>
> Do not be deceived. God is not mocked, for whatever a man **plants**, that he will also **gather** in. For he who **plants** seed to his own sinful nature, from the sinful nature **will gathe**r in destruction. But the one who **plants** seed to the Spirit, from the Spirit **will gather** in eternal life. (Galatians 6:7-8 ULT)
#### THRESHING and WINNOWING represent the separation of evil people from good people
After farmers harvest wheat and other types of grain, they bring them to a _threshing floor_, a flat place with hard ground, and have oxen pull heavy wheeled carts or sleds without wheels over the grain to _thresh_ it, to separate the usable grains from the useless chaff. Then they take large forks and _winnow_ the threshed grain by throwing it up in the air so the wind can carry off the chaff while the grains fall back to the threshing floor, where they can be gathered and used for food. (see *thresh* and *winnow* pages in [unfoldingWord® Translation Words](http://ufw.io/tw/) for help translating “thresh” and “winnow”)
After farmers harvest wheat and other types of grain, they bring them to a **threshing floor**, a flat place with hard ground, and have oxen pull heavy wheeled carts or sleds without wheels over the grain to **thresh** it, to separate the usable grains from the useless chaff. Then they take large forks and **winnow** the threshed grain by throwing it up in the air so the wind can carry off the chaff (waste) while the grains fall back to the threshing floor, where they can be gathered and used for food. (See "thresh" and "winnow" pages in [unfoldingWord® Translation Words](http://ufw.io/tw/) for help translating thresh and winnow.)
> So I will winnow them with a pitchfork at the gates of the land. I will bereave them. I will destroy my people since they will not turn from their ways. (Jeremiah 15:7 ULT)
> His winnowing fork is in his hand to thoroughly clear off his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his storehouse. But he will burn up the chaff with fire that can never be put out. (Luke 3:17 ULT)
> So I will **winnow** them with a pitchfork at the gates of the land. I will bereave them. I will destroy my people since they will not turn from their ways. (Jeremiah 15:7 ULT)
>
> His **winnowing fork** is in his hand to thoroughly clear off his **threshing floor** and to gather the wheat into his storehouse. But he will burn up the chaff with unquenchable fire. (Luke 3:17 ULT)
#### GRAFTING represents God’s allowing the Gentiles to become his people
> For if you were cut out of what is by nature a wild olive tree, and contrary to nature were grafted into a good olive tree, how much more will these Jews, who are the natural branches, be grafted back into their own olive tree? For I do not want you to be unaware, brothers, of this mystery, in order that you will not be wise in your own thinking. This mystery is that a partial hardening has occurred in Israel, until the completion of the Gentiles come in. (Romans 11:24-25 ULT)
> For if you were cut out of what is by nature a wild olive tree, and contrary to nature were **grafted** into a good olive tree, how much more will these Jews, who are the natural branches, be **grafted** back into their own olive tree? For I do not want you to be unaware, brothers, of this mystery, in order that you will not be wise in your own thinking. This mystery is that a partial hardening has occurred in Israel, until the completion of the Gentiles come in. (Romans 11:24-25 ULT)
#### RAIN represents God’s gifts to his people
> …he comes and rains righteousness on you. (Hosea 10:12 ULT)
> For the land that drinks in the rain that often comes on it, and that gives birth to the plants useful to those for whom the land was worked—this is the land that receives a blessing from God. But if it bears thorns and thistles, it is worthless and is near to a curse. Its end is in burning. (Hebrews 6:7-8 ULT)
> So be patient, brothers, until the Lord’s coming. See, the farmer awaits the valuable harvest from the ground. He is patiently waiting for it, until it receives the early and late rains. (James 5:7 ULT)
> … he comes and **rains** righteousness on you. (Hosea 10:12b ULT)
>
> For the land that drinks in the **rain** that often comes on it, and that produces plants useful to those for whom the land was also cultivated, receives a blessing from God. But land that bears thorns and thistles is worthless and is about to be cursed. Its end is to be burned. (Hebrews 6:7-8 ULT)
>
> So be patient, brothers, until the Lord’s coming. See, the farmer awaits the valuable harvest from the ground. He is patiently waiting for it, until it receives the early and late **rains**. (James 5:7 ULT)

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What are some examples in the Bible of images taken from farming?
What are some examples of images taken from farming that are used as images in the Bible?

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#### The BODY represents a group of people
> Now you are the ***body*** of Christ and individually members of it. (1 Corinthians 12:27 ULT)
> Rather we will speak the truth in love and grow up in all ways into him who is the head, Christ. Christ joins the whole ***body*** of believers together—it is held together by every supporting ligament so that the whole body grows and builds itself up in love. (Ephesians 4:15-16 ULT)
> Now you are the **body** of Christ and individually members of it. (1 Corinthians 12:27 ULT)
>
> Instead, speaking the truth in love, let us grow up in all things into him who is the head, even Christ, from whom the whole **body,** being joined and held together by every supporting ligament, according to the working in measure of each individual part, causes the growth of the **body** for building up itself in love.
In these verses, the body of Christ represents the group of people who follow Christ.
#### A BROTHER represents a person's relatives, associates, or peers
> For Mordecai the Jew was second to the King Ahasuerus, and great among the Jews, and favored by the multitude of his ***brothers***… (Esther 10:3a ULT)
#### A BROTHER represents a person’s relatives, associates, or peers
> For Mordecai the Jew was second to the King Ahasuerus, and great among the Jews, and favored by the multitude of his **brothers **… (Esther 10:3a ULT)
#### A DAUGHTER represents a village located near a town or city
#### A MOTHER represents a town or city with villages surrounding it
> And for the settlements among their fields, those of the sons of Judah lived in Kiriath Arba and its ***daughters***, and in Dibon and its ***daughters***, and in Jekabzeel and her settlements…. (Nehemiah 11:25 ULT)
> And for the villages in their fields, some from the sons of Judah dwelt: in Kiriath Arba and its daughters; and in Dibon and its daughters; and in Jekabzeel and its villages … (Nehemiah 11:25 ULT)
#### The FACE represents someone’s presence, sight, knowledge, perception, attention, or judgment
> Then Esther repeated her action, and she spoke before the ***face*** of the king. (Esther 8:3a ULT)
> Why do you hide your ***face*** and forget our affliction and our oppression? (Psalm 44:24 ULT)
> Then Esther repeated her action, and she spoke before the **face** of the king. (Esther 8:3a ULT)
>
> Why do you hide your **face** and forget our affliction and our oppression? (Psalm 44:24 ULT)
To hide one’s face from someone means to ignore him.
> Many seek the ***face*** of the ruler, (Proverbs 29:26 ULT)
> Many are those who seek the **face** of the ruler. (Proverbs 29:26 ULT)
If someone seeks another person’s face, he hopes that the person will pay attention to him.
> Do you not fear me—this is Yahweh’s declaration—or tremble before my ***face***? (Jeremiah 5:22 ULT)
> Every man of the house of Israel who takes his idols into his heart, or who puts the stumbling block of his iniquity before his ***face***, and who then comes to a prophet—I, Yahweh, will answer him according to the number of his idols. (Ezekiel 14:4 ULT)
> Do you not fear me—this is Yahweh’s declaration—or tremble before my **face**? (Jeremiah 5:22 ULT)
>
> Every man of the house of Israel who takes his idols into his heart, or who puts the stumbling block of his iniquity before his **face**, and who then comes to a prophet—I, Yahweh, will answer him according to the number of his idols. (Ezekiel 14:4 ULT)
To put something before one’s face is to look at it intently or pay attention to it.
#### The FACE represents the front of something
> So Hathak went out to Mordecai, to the open place of the city that was before the ***face*** of the gate of the king. (Esther 4:6 ULT)
> She fell before the ***face*** of his feet and wept and implored favor from him to take away the evil of Haman the Agagite and his plot that he had plotted against the Jews. (Esther 8:3b ULT)
> So Hathak went out to Mordecai, to the open place of the city that was before the **face** of the gate of the king. (Esther 4:6 ULT)
>
> She fell before the **face** of his feet and wept and implored favor from him to take away the evil of Haman the Agagite and his plot that he had plotted against the Jews. (Esther 8:3b ULT)
#### The FACE represents the surface of something
> The famine was over all ***the face*** of the whole land. (Genesis 41:56 ULT)
> He encloses ***the face*** of the moon and spreads his clouds on it. (Job 26:9 ULT)
> The famine was over all **the face** of the whole land. (Genesis 41:56a ULT)
>
> He covers **the face** of the moon and spreads his clouds on it. (Job 26:9 ULT)
#### A FATHER represents someone's ancestor(s)
#### A SON represents someone's descendant(s)
#### A FATHER represents someone’s ancestor(s)
> And they and our ***fathers*** were arrogant, and they stiffened their necks, and did not listen to your commandments. (Nehemiah 9:16 ULT)
#### A SON represents someone’s descendant(s)
> We have not listened to your servants the prophets who spoke in your name to our kings, our leaders, our ***fathers***, and to all the people of the land. (Daniel 9:6 ULT)
> But they acted presumptuously, they and our **fathers**. And they stiffened their neck and did not listen to your commandments. (Nehemiah 9:16 ULT)
>
> We have not listened to your servants the prophets who spoke in your name to our kings, our leaders, our **fathers**, and to all the people of the land. To you, Lord, belongs righteousness …" (Daniel 9:6-7a ULT)
#### The HAND represents someone’s power, control, agency, or action
> Yahweh has burst through my enemies ***by my hand*** like a bursting flood of water. (1 Chronicles 14:11 ULT)
> Yahweh has burst through my enemies **by my hand** like a bursting flood of water. (1 Chronicles 14:11 ULT)
“Yahweh has burst through my enemies by my hand” means “Yahweh has used me to burst through my enemies.”
> ***Your hand*** will seize all your enemies; ***your right hand*** will seize those who hate you. (Psalm 21:8 ULT)
> **Your hand** will seize all your enemies; **your right hand** will seize those who hate you. (Psalm 21:8 ULT)
“Your hand will seize all your enemies” means “By your power you will seize all your enemies.”
> Look, ***Yahweh’s hand*** is not so short that it cannot save. (Isaiah 59:1 ULT)
> Look, **Yahweh’s hand** is not so short that it cannot save. (Isaiah 59:1 ULT)
“His hand is not short” means that he is not weak.
#### The HEAD represents the tip, top, or uppermost part of something
> And the king held out to Esther the scepter of gold which was in his hand, so Esther approached and touched the ***head*** of the scepter. (Esther 5:2b ULT)
> And the king held out to Esther the scepter of gold which was in his hand, so Esther approached and touched the **head** of the scepter. (Esther 5:2b ULT)
#### The HEART represents the action of thinking or feeling
> And Boaz ate and drank, and his **heart** was good, and he went to lie down at the end of the pile of grain. (Ruth 3:7a ULT)
>
> On the seventh day, when the **heart** of the king was pleased by the wine… (Esther 1:10a ULT)
> On the seventh day, when the ***heart*** of the king was pleased by the wine… (Esther 1:10a ULT)
#### The HEART represents someone’s attitude
#### The HEART represents someone's attitude
> Then the king Ahasuerus spoke and said to Esther the queen, "Who is he, this man? Where is this man, he whose ***heart*** is full to do thus?" (Esther 7:5 ULT)
> Then the king Ahasuerus spoke and said to Esther the queen, “Who is he, this man? Where is this man, he whose **heart** is full to do thus?” (Esther 7:5 ULT)
In this context, having a full heart means to be proud or arrogant.
#### The EYES represent sight, knowledge, perception, attention, or judgment
> For the matter of the queen will go out to all the women, in order to make their husbands despised in their ***eyes***… (Esther 1:17a ULT)
> For the matter of the queen will go out to all the women, in order to make their husbands despised in their **eyes** … (Esther 1:17a ULT)
#### The EYES represent someone's attitude
#### The EYES represent someone’s attitude
> but you bring down those with ***proud, uplifted eyes***! (Psalm 18:27 ULT)
> …but you bring down those with **proud, uplifted eyes**! (Psalm 18:27b ULT)
Uplifted eyes show that a person is proud.
> God humbles a proud man, and he saves the one with ***lowered eyes***. (Job 22:29 ULT)
> God humbles a proud man, and he saves the one with **lowered eyes**. (Job 22:29 ULT)
Lowered eyes show that a person is humble.
#### The HEAD represents a ruler, a leader, or a person with authority over others
> A man from each tribe, ***a clan head***, must serve with you as his tribe’s leader. (Num 1:4 ULT)
> God has subjected all things under Christ’s feet and has ***made him the head*** over all things in the church, which is his body, the fullness of him who fills all things in all ways. (Ephesians 1:22 ULT)
> A man from each tribe, **a clan head**, must serve with you as his tribe’s leader. (Num 1:4 ULT)
>
> He put all things under his feet and **gave him as head** over all things to the church, which is his body, the fullness of the one who fills all in all. (Ephesians 1:22-23 ULT)
#### A MASTER represents anything that motivates someone to act
> No one can serve ***two masters***, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and wealth. (Matthew 6:24 ULT)
> No one can serve **two masters**, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and wealth. (Matthew 6:24 ULT)
To serve God is to be motivated by God. To serve money is to be motivated by money.
#### The MOUTH means speech or words
> A fool’s ***mouth*** is his ruin. (Proverbs 18:7 ULT)
> Oh, how I would encourage you with my ***mouth***! (Job 16:5 ULT)
> I heard you when you boasted against me with your ***mouth***; you said many things against me. I heard them. (Ezekiel 35:13 ULT)
> A fool’s **mouth** is his ruin. (Proverbs 18:7 ULT)
>
> I would strengthen you with my mouth. (Job 16:5 ULT)
In these examples the mouth refers to what a person says.
#### A NAME represents the person who has that name
> May your God make ***the name of Solomon*** better than your name, and make his throne greater than your throne.” (1 Kings 1:47 ULT)
> See, I have sworn ***by my great name***—says Yahweh. ***My name*** will no longer be called upon by the mouths of any of the men of Judah in all the land of Egypt….” (Jeremiah 44:26 ULT)
> May your God make **the name of Solomon** better than your name, and make his throne greater than your throne.” (1 Kings 1:47 ULT)
>
> See, I have sworn **by my great name**—says Yahweh. **My name** will no longer be called upon by the mouths of any of the men of Judah in all the land of Egypt.” (Jeremiah 44:26 ULT)
If someone’s name is great, it means that he is great.
> Listen now to the prayer of your servant and to the prayer of your servants who delight to ***honor your name***…. (Nehemiah 1:11 ULT)
> Please let your ear be attentive to the prayer of your servant and to the prayer of your servants, the ones who delight to **fear your name**. (Nehemiah 1:11 ULT)
To honor someone’s name is to honor him.
To fear someone’s name is to honor him.
#### A NAME represents someone's fame or reputation
#### A NAME represents someone’s fame or reputation
> You must no longer profane ***my holy name*** with your gifts and your idols. (Ezekiel 20:39 ULT)
> You must no longer profane **my holy name** with your gifts and your idols. (Ezekiel 20:39 ULT)
To profane God’s name is to profane his reputation, that is, to profane how people think about him.
> For I will make ***my great name*** holy, which you have profaned among the nations…. (Ezekiel 36:23 ULT)
> For I will make **my great name** holy, which you have profaned among the nations … (Ezekiel 36:23 ULT)
To make God’s name holy is to cause people to to see that God is holy.
To make God’s name holy is to cause people to see that God is holy.
> Your servants have come here from a land very far away, because of ***the name*** of Yahweh your God. We have heard a report about him and about everything that he did in Egypt (Joshua 9:9 ULT)
> Your servants have come from a very distant country, because of **the name** of Yahweh your God, for we have heard a report about him and about everything that he did in Egypt. (Joshua 9:9 ULT)
The fact that the men said they heard a report about Yahweh shows that “because of the name of Yahweh” means because of Yahweh’s reputation.
#### A NAME represents someone's power, authority, position, or status
#### A NAME represents someone’s power, authority, position, or status
> In the ***name*** of the king Ahasuerus it was written, and it was sealed with the signet ring of the king. (Esther 3:12b ULT)
> In the **name** of the king Ahasuerus it was written, and it was sealed with the signet ring of the king. (Esther 3:12b ULT)
#### The NOSE represents anger
> Then…the foundations of the world were exposed at your battle cry, Yahweh—at the blast of the breath of ***your nostrils***. (Psalms 18:15 ULT)
> By the blast of ***your nostrils*** the waters were piled up…. (Exodus 15:8 ULT)
> Smoke went up from out of ***his nostrils***, and blazing fire came out of his mouth…. (2 Samuel 22:9 ULT)
> …This is the Lord Yahweh’s declaration: ‘My fury will arise in ***my nostrils***!’ (Ezekiel 38:18 ULT)
> Yahweh, Yahweh, God is merciful and gracious, ***slow to anger***… (Exodus 34:6 ULT)
> Then … the foundations of the world were laid bare at your rebuke, Yahweh, at the blast of the breath of **your nostrils**. (Psalms 18:15 ULT)
>
> By the blast of **your nostrils** the waters were piled up. (Exodus 15:8a ULT)
>
> Smoke went up from out of **his nostrils**, and blazing fire came out of his mouth. (2 Samuel 22:9a ULT)
>
> Yahweh, Yahweh, God is merciful and gracious, **slow to anger **… (Exodus 34:6a ULT)
In Hebrew, a hot nose represents anger, including such images as a blast of air or smoke coming from someone's nostrils. The opposite of a "hot nose" is a "long nose". The phrase "slow to anger" in Hebrew literally means "long of nose". A long nose represents patience, meaning that it takes a long time for that person's nose to get hot.
In Hebrew, a hot nose represents anger, including such images as a blast of air or smoke coming from someone’s nostrils. The opposite of a “hot nose” is a “long nose.” The phrase “slow to anger” in Hebrew literally means “long of nose.” A long nose represents patience, meaning that it takes a long time for that person’s nose to get hot.
#### A SON represents the offspring of an animal(s)
> And he sent letters by the hand of runners on horses, riders of the royal pack horses, ***sons*** of the mares… (Esther 8:10a ULT)
> And he sent letters (by the hand of runners on horses, riders of the royal pack horses, sons of the mares) … (Esther 8:10a ULT)
#### The SON OF SOMETHING represents something shares the qualities of another thing
> no ***son of wickedness*** will oppress him. (Psalm 89:22b ULT)
> No **son of wickedness** will oppress him. (Psalm 89:22b ULT)
A son of wickedness is a wicked person.
> May the groans of the prisoners come before you;
> with the greatness of your power keep the ***children of death*** alive. (Psalm 79:11 ULT)
> May the groans of the prisoners come before you;
> with the greatness of your power keep the **children of death** alive. (Psalm 79:11 ULT)
Children of death here are people that others plan to kill.
> We all were once among these unbelievers and acted according to the evil desires of our flesh, doing the will of the flesh and of the mind, and we were by nature ***children of wrath*** like the others. (Ephesians 2:3 ULT)
> We all also once lived among these, in the evil desires of our flesh, fulfilling the desires of the body and of the mind. We were by nature **children of wrath**, as also the rest. (Ephesians 2:3 ULT)
Children of wrath here are people with whom God is very angry.
#### The TONGUE represents the language spoken by a person or a group of people
> …every man should be ruling in his house and speaking according to the ***tongue*** of his people. (Esther 1:22 ULT)
> Every man should be ruling in his house and speaking according to the **tongue** of his people. (Esther 1:22b ULT)
### Translation Strategies
See the Translations Strategies on [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md).
See the Translations Strategies on [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md).

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@ -2,275 +2,249 @@ Some common [metonymies](../figs-metonymy/01.md) and [metaphors](../figs-metapho
#### Being BENT OVER means being discouraged or oppressed
> Yahweh supports all who are falling and raises up all those who are ***bent over***. (Psalm 145:14 ULT)
> Yahweh supports all who are falling and raises up all those who are **bent over**. (Psalm 145:14 ULT)
#### Having BIRTH PAINS mean suffering that is necessary to achieve a new condition
> ***Be in pain and labor to give birth***, daughter of Zion, like a ***woman in labor***.
> For now you will go out of the city, live in the field, and go to Babylon.
> There you will be rescued.
> There Yahweh will rescue you from the hand of your enemies. (Micah 4:10 ULT)
> For nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be famines and earthquakes in various places. But all these things are only the beginning of ***birth pains***. (Matthew 24:7-8 ULT)
> My little children, I am suffering ***labor pains*** for you again, until Christ will have been formed in you! (Galatians 4:19 ULT)
> **Be in pain and labor to give birth**, daughter of Zion, like a **woman in labor**.
> For now you will go out of the city, live in the field, and go to Babylon.
> There you will be rescued. There Yahweh will rescue you from the hand of your enemies. (Micah 4:10 ULT)
>
> For nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be famines and earthquakes in various places. But all these things are only the beginning of **birth pains**. (Matthew 24:7-8 ULT)
>
> My little children, again I am in the **pains of childbirth** for you until Christ is formed in you.(Galatians 4:19 ULT)
#### Being CALLED SOMETHING means being that thing
> The Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer; he ***is called*** the God of the whole earth. (Isaiah 54:5b ULT)
> The Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer; he **is called** the God of the whole earth. (Isaiah 54:5b ULT)
This is because he actually is the God of the whole earth.
> The one who is wise in heart ***is called*** discerning, (Proverbs 16:21a ULT)
> The one who is wise in heart **is called** discerning, (Proverbs 16:21a ULT)
This is because he actually is discerning.
> He will…***be called*** the Son of the Most High. (Luke 1:32 ULT)
> He will … **be called** the Son of the Most High. (Luke 1:32a ULT)
This is because he actually is the Son of the Most High.
> So the holy one to be born will ***be called*** the Son of God. (Luke 1:35 ULT)
> Therefore, the holy one who will be borne will **be called** the Son of God. (Luke 1:35b ULT)
This is because he actually is the Son of God.
> Every male that opens the womb will ***be called*** dedicated to the Lord. (Luke 2:23 ULT)
> Every male who opens the womb will **be called** dedicated to the Lord. (Luke 2:23b ULT)
This is because he actually will be dedicated to the Lord.
#### Being CLEAN means being acceptable for God’s purposes
> Noah built an altar to Yahweh. He took some of the ***clean*** animals and some of the ***clean*** birds, and offered burnt offerings on the altar. Yahweh smelled the pleasing aroma… (Genesis 8:20 ULT)
> The priest will examine him again on the seventh day to see if the disease is better and has not spread farther in the skin. If it has not, then the priest will pronounce him ***clean***. It is a rash. He must wash his clothes, and then he is ***clean***. (Leviticus 13:6 ULT)
> Noah built an altar to Yahweh. He took some of the **clean** animals and some of the **clean** birds, and offered burnt offerings on the altar. Yahweh smelled the pleasing aroma. (Genesis 8:20 ULT)
>
> The priest will examine him again on the seventh day to see if the disease is better and has not spread farther in the skin. If it has not, then the priest will pronounce him **clean**. It is a rash. He must wash his clothes, and then he is **clean**. (Leviticus 13:6 ULT)
#### CLEANSING or PURIFYING means making something acceptable for God’s purposes
> He must go out to the altar that is before Yahweh and make atonement for it, and he must take some of the bull’s blood and some of the goat’s blood and put it on the horns of the altar all around. He must sprinkle some of the blood on it with his finger seven times to ***cleanse*** it and dedicate it to Yahweh, away from the ***unclean*** actions of the people of Israel. (Leviticus 16:18-19 ULT)
> This is because on this day atonement will be made for you, to ***cleanse*** you from all your sins so you will be ***clean*** before Yahweh. (Leviticus 16:30 ULT)
> He must go out to the altar that is before Yahweh and make atonement for it, and he must take some of the bull’s blood and some of the goat’s blood and put it on the horns of the altar all around. He must sprinkle some of the blood on it with his finger seven times to **cleanse** it and dedicate it to Yahweh, away from the **unclean** actions of the people of Israel. (Leviticus 16:18-19 ULT)
>
> This is because on this day atonement will be made for you, to **cleanse** you from all your sins so you will be **clean** before Yahweh. (Leviticus 16:30 ULT)
#### COMING or STANDING BEFORE SOMEONE means serving him
> How blessed are your people, and how blessed are your servants who constantly ***stand before you***, because they hear your wisdom. (1 Kings 10:8 ULT)
> Covenant faithfulness and trustworthiness ***come before you***. (Psalm 89:14 ULT)
> How blessed are your wives, and how blessed are your servants who constantly **stand before you**, because they hear your wisdom. (1 Kings 10:8 ULT)
>
> Covenant faithfulness and trustworthiness **come before you**. (Psalm 89:14b ULT)
Covenant faithfulness and trustworthiness are also personified here. (See [Personification](../figs-personification/01.md).)
#### Being CUT OFF means being killed
> So you must keep the Sabbath, for it must be treated by you as holy, reserved for him. Everyone who defiles it must surely ***be put to death***. Whoever works on the Sabbath, that person must surely ***be cut off from his people***. (Exodus 31:14-15 ULT)
> Whoever does not humble himself on that day must be ***cut off from his people***. Whoever does any work on that day, ***I, Yahweh, will destroy him*** from among his people. (Leviticus 23:29-30 ULT)
> But he was ***cut off*** from the land of the living. (Isaiah 53:8 ULT)
> So you must keep the Sabbath, for it must be treated by you as holy, reserved for him. Everyone who defiles it must surely **be put to death**. Whoever works on the Sabbath, that person must surely **be cut off from his people**. (Exodus 31:14 ULT)
>
> Whoever does not humble himself on that day must be **cut off from his people**. Whoever does any work on that day, **I, Yahweh, will destroy him** from among his people. (Leviticus 23:29-30 ULT)
>
> But he was **cut off** from the land of the living … (Isaiah 53:8b ULT)
#### Being CUT OFF from something means being separated from it
> Uzziah, the king, was a leper to the day of his death, and lived in a separate house, since he was a leper; for he was ***cut off from the house of Yahweh.*** (2 Chronicles 26:21 ULT)
#### Being CUT OFF from something means being sepa rated from it
> Uzziah, the king, was a leper to the day of his death, and lived in a separate house, since he was a leper; for he was **cut off from the house of Yahweh.** (2 Chronicles 26:21a ULT)
#### DRINKING WINE means being judged
Too much wine makes a person weak and he staggers. So too, when God judges people, they become weak and stagger. So the idea of wine is used to represent God’s judgment.
> You have shown your people severe things;
> you have made us ***drink the wine of staggering***. (Psalm 60:3 ULT)
> But God is the judge;
> he brings one down and raises up another.
> For Yahweh holds a cup in his hand of ***foaming wine***,
> which is mixed with spices, and pours it out.
> Surely all the wicked of the earth will ***drink it*** to the last drop. (Psalm 75:8 ULT)
> he also will drink the ***wine*** of God’s wrath, the ***wine*** that has been prepared and poured unmixed into the cup of his anger. (Revelation 14:10 ULT)
Too much wine makes a person weak so that he staggers. So too, when God judges people, they become weak and stagger. So the idea of wine is used to represent God’s judgment.
> You have made your people see difficult things; you have made us **drink the wine of staggering**. (Psalm 60:3 ULT)
>
> But God is the judge;
> he brings down and he lifts up.
> For Yahweh holds in his hand a cup of **foaming wine**,
> which is mixed with spices, and pours it out.
> Surely all the wicked of the earth will **drink it** to the last drop. (Psalm 75:7-8 ULT)
>
> He also will drink from the **wine** of the wrath of God, the **wine** that has been poured undiluted into the cup of his anger. (Revelation 14:10a ULT)
#### EATING UP means defeating, destroying, or harming
> God brings [Israel] out of Egypt.
> He has strength like a wild ox.
> ***He will eat up the nations who fight against him***.
> He will break their bones to pieces.
> God brings him out of Egypt.
> with strength like a wild ox.
> **He will eat up the nations who fight against him**.
> He will break their bones to pieces.
> He will shoot them with his arrows. (Numbers 24:8 ULT)
Another word for “eat up” is devour.
> Therefore as ***the tongue of fire devours stubble***, and as the dry grass goes down in flame,
> so their root will rot, and their blossom will blow away like dust, (Isaiah 5:24 ULT)
> Therefore Yahweh will raise up against him, Rezin, his adversary, and will stir up his enemies,
> the Arameans on the east, and the Philistines on the west.
> ***They will devour Israel with open mouth***. (Isaiah 9:11-12 ULT)
> I will make my arrows drunk with blood,
> and ***my sword will devour flesh***
> with the blood of the killed and the captives,
> and from the heads of the leaders of the enemy. (Deuteronomy 32:42 ULT)
> Therefore as **the tongue of fire devours stubble**, and as the dry grass goes down in flame, so their root will rot, and their blossom will blow away like dust. (Isaiah 5:24 ULT)
>
> Therefore Yahweh will raise up against him Rezin, his adversary, and will stir up his enemies, the Arameans on the east, and the Philistines on the west.
> **They will devour Israel with open mouth**. (Isaiah 9:11-12 ULT)
>
> I will make my arrows drunk with blood, and **my sword will devour flesh** with the blood of the killed and the captives, and from the heads of the leaders of the enemy. (Deuteronomy 32:42 ULT)
#### FALLING UPON or BEING UPON means affecting
> Yahweh God caused a deep sleep to ***fall upon*** the man, so the man slept. (Genesis 2:21 ULT)
> Would not his majesty make you afraid?
> Would not his dread ***fall upon*** you? (Job 13:11 ULT)
> Then the Spirit of Yahweh ***fell on me*** and he said to me… (Ezekiel 11:5 ULT)
> Now look, the hand of the Lord ***is upon you***, and you will become blind. (Acts 13:11 ULT)
> Yahweh God caused a deep sleep to **fall upon** the man, so the man slept. (Genesis 2:21a ULT)
>
> Will not his majesty terrify you, and the dread of him fall upon you? (Job 13:11 ULT)
>
> Then the Spirit of Yahweh **fell on me** and he said for me to say … (Exekiel 11:5a ULT)
>
> Now look, the hand of the Lord **is upon you**, and you will become blind. (Acts 13:11a ULT)
#### FOLLOWING SOMEONE means being loyal to him
> They broke away from Yahweh, the God of their fathers, who had brought them out of the land of Egypt. ***They went after other gods***, the very gods of the peoples who were around them, and they bowed down to them. They provoked Yahweh to anger because they broke away from Yahweh and worshiped Baal and the Ashtoreths.
> For Solomon ***followed*** Ashtoreth, the goddess of the Sidonians, and ***he followed*** Milcom, the disgusting idol of the Ammonites. (1 Kings 11:5 ULT)
> Not one of them who despised me will see it, except for my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit. ***He has followed me fully***; I will bring him into the land which he went to examine. His descendants will possess it. (Numbers 14:23-24 ULT)
> Thus they forsook Yahweh, the God of their fathers, the one who brought them out of the land of Egypt. **They went after** other gods from the gods of the people groups who were around them, and they bowed down to them. They provoked Yahweh to anger. They forsook Yahweh and they served the Baal and the Ashtoreths. (Judges 2:12-13 ULT)
>
> For Solomon **followed** Ashtoreth, the goddess of the Sidonians, and **he followed** Milcom, the disgusting idol of the Ammonites. (1 Kings 11:5 ULT)
>
> Not one of them who despised me will see it, except for my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit. **He has followed me fully**; I will bring him into the land which he went to examine. His descendants will possess it. (Numbers 14:23-24 ULT)
#### GOING BEFORE, ACCOMPANYING, or FOLLOWING A KING WITH HIS OTHER ATTENDANTS means serving him
> See, his reward is ***with him***, and his recompense is ***going before him***. (Isaiah 62:11 ULT)
> Righteousness will ***go before him*** and make a way for his footsteps. (Psalm 85:13 ULT)
> See, his reward is **with him**, and his recompense is **going before him**. (Isaiah 62:11b ULT)
>
> Righteousness will **go before him** and make a way for his footsteps. (Psalm 85:13 ULT)
#### INHERITING means permanently possessing something
#### an INHERITANCE means something that a person permanently possesses
#### an HEIR means someone who permanent possesses something
> Then the King will say to those on his right hand, “Come, you who have been blessed by my Father, ***inherit*** the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world.” (Matthew 25:34)
#### an INHERITANCE means something that a person permanently possesses
#### an HEIR means someone who permanently possesses something
> Then the King will say to those on his right hand, “Come, you who have been blessed by my Father, **inherit** the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world.” (Matthew 25:34)
The blessing of God’s complete rule is given as the permanent possession to those to whom the King is speaking.
> Now this I say, brothers and sisters, that flesh and blood cannot ***inherit*** the kingdom of God. Neither does what is perishable ***inherit*** what is imperishable. (1 Corinthians 15:50 ULT)
> Now this I say, brothers and sisters, that flesh and blood cannot **inherit** the kingdom of God. Neither does what is perishable **inherit** what is imperishable. (1 Corinthians 15:50 ULT)
People cannot receive the kingdom of God in its complete form as a permanent possession while they are still in their mortal bodies.
> You will bring them and plant them on the mountain of your ***inheritance***. (Exodus 15:17 ULT)
> You will bring them and plant them on the mountain of your **inheritance**. (Exodus 15:17a ULT)
The mountain where God will be worshiped is viewed as his permanent possession.
> Pardon our iniquity and our sin, and take us as your ***inheritance***. (Exodus 34:9 ULT)
> Pardon our iniquity and our sin, and take us as your **inheritance**. (Exodus 34:9b ULT)
Moses asks God to still accept the people of Israel as his special possession, that is, as the people permanently belonging to him.
> the richness of the glory of his ***inheritance*** among those who are set apart for him. (Ephesians 1:18 ULT)
The wonderful things that God will give all who are set apart for him is viewed as their permanent possession.
> For it was not through the law that the promise was given to Abraham and to his descendants, this promise that they would be ***heirs*** of the world. (Romans 4:13 ULT)
> …the richness of the glory of his **inheritance** in the saints … (Ephesians 1:18b ULT) The wonderful things that God will give all who are set apart for him are viewed as their permanent possessions.
>
> For the promise to Abraham and to his descendants that he would be **heir** of the world did not come through the law but through the righteousness of faith. (Romans 4:13 ULT)
The promise was that Abraham and his descendants would permanently possess the entire world.
> God has spoken to us by a Son, whom he appointed to be the ***heir*** of all things. (Hebrews 1:2 ULT)
> He has spoken to us through a Son, whom he appointed to be the **heir** of all things. (Hebrews 1:2b ULT)
God’s Son will receive all things as a permanent possession.
> It was by faith that Noah…condemned the world and became an ***heir*** of the righteousness that comes through faith. (Hebrews 11:7 ULT)
> By faith Noah … condemned the world and became an heir of the righteousness that is according to faith. (Hebrews 11:7 ULT)
Noah received righteousness as a permanent possession.
#### LIFTING means promoting or giving someone higher status or importance
> Then Haman recounted to them the glory of his wealth, and the multitude of his sons, and all about how the king had made him great and how he had ***lifted*** him over the officials and administrators of the king. (Esther 5:11 ULT)
> Then Haman recounted to them the glory of his wealth, and the multitude of his sons, and all about how the king had made him great and how he had **lifted** him over the officials and administrators of the king. (Esther 5:11 ULT)
#### LYING DOWN or SLEEPING means dying or being dead
> When your days are fulfilled and you ***lie down with your fathers***, I will raise up a descendant after you, (2 Samuel 7:12 ULT)
> Ask them, ‘Are you really more beautiful than anyone else? ***Go down and lie*** with the uncircumcised!’
> They will fall among those who were killed by the sword! Egypt is given to the sword; her enemies will seize her and her servants! (Ezekiel 32:19-20 ULT)
> When your days are fulfilled and you **lie down with your fathers**, I will raise up a descendant after you, (2 Samuel 7:12a ULT)
>
> ‘Are you really more beautiful than anyone else? Go down and **lie down** with the uncircumcised.’ They will fall among those who were killed by the sword. The sword has been drawn! She has been given to the sword; they will seize her and her multitudes. (Ezekiel 32:19-20 ULT)
#### REIGNING or RULING means controlling
> This happened so that, as sin ***ruled*** in death, even so grace might ***rule*** through righteousness for everlasting life through Jesus Christ our Lord. (Romans 5:21 ULT)
> Therefore do not let sin ***rule*** in your mortal body in order that you obey its lusts. (Romans 6:12 ULT)
> This happened so that, as sin **ruled** in death, even so grace might **rule** through righteousness for everlasting life through Jesus Christ our Lord. (Romans 5:21 ULT)
>
> Therefore do not let sin **rule** in your mortal body in order that you obey its lusts. (Romans 6:12 ULT)
#### RESTING or a RESTING PLACE means a safe and beneficial situation
> Naomi her mother-in-law said to her, “My daughter, should I not seek a place for you to ***rest***, so that things may go well for you?” (Ruth 3:1 ULT)
> Therefore I vowed in my anger that they would never enter into my ***resting place***. (Psalm 95:11 ULT)
> This is my ***resting place*** forever; I will live here, for I desire her [Zion]. (Psalm 132:14 ULT)
> The nations will seek him out, and his ***resting place*** will be glorious. (Isaiah 11:10 ULT)
> Then Naomi, her mother-in-law, said to her, “My daughter, should I not seek a **resting place** for you, that will be good for you? (Ruth 3:1 ULT)
>
> Therefore I vowed in my anger that they would never enter into my **resting place**. (Psalm 95:11 ULT)
>
> This is my **resting place** forever. I will live here, for I desire her \[Zion\]. (Psalm 132:14 ULT)
>
> The nations will seek him out, and his **resting place** will be glorious. (Isaiah 11:10b ULT)
#### RISING or STANDING UP means doing or taking action
> ***Rise up*** for our help and redeem us for the sake of your covenant faithfulness. (Psalm 44:26 ULT)
> ***Get up***, go to Nineveh, the great city, and call out against it, because their wickedness has risen up before my face. (Jonah 1:2 ULT)
> **Rise up** for our help and redeem us for the sake of your covenant faithfulness. (Psalm 44:26 ULT)
>
> **Get up**, go to Nineveh, the great city, and call out against it, because their wickedness has risen up before my face. (Jonah 1:2 ULT)
#### SEEING means knowledge, perception, notice, attention, or judgment
> Why have I found favor ***in your eyes*** that you should take notice of me… (Ruth 2:10 ULT)
> Now the young girls was pleasing ***in his eyes***, and she held favor before him. (Esther 2:9 ULT)
> The ***eyes*** of Yahweh are everywhere, ***keeping watch*** over the evil and the good. (Proverbs 15:3 ULT)
> But Haman remained in order to seek for his life from Esther the queen, for he ***saw*** that evil was determined against him by the king. (Esther 7:7b ULT)
> Why have I found favor **in your eyes** that you should take notice of me…(Ruth 2:10b ULT)
>
> And the young woman was pleasing **in his eyes**, and she lifted kindness before his face. (Esther 2:9a ULT)
>
> The **eyes** of Yahweh are everywhere, **keeping watch** over the evil and the good. (Proverbs 15:3 ULT)
>
> But Haman remained in order to seek for his life from Esther the queen, for he **saw** that evil was determined against him by the king. (Esther 7:7b ULT)
#### SEEKING means pleading or begging
> But Haman remained in order to ***seek*** for his life from Esther the queen, for he saw that evil was determined against him by the king. (Esther 7:7b ULT)
> But Haman remained in order to **seek** for his life from Esther the queen, for he saw that evil was determined against him by the king. (Esther 7:7b ULT)
#### SEEKING means trying to do something or making an effort to do something
> For Mordecai the Jew was second to the King Ahasuerus, and great among the Jews, and favored by the multitude of his brothers, ***seeking*** good for his people and speaking peace to all its seed. (Esther 10:3 ULT)
> For Mordecai the Jew was second to the King Ahasuerus, and great among the Jews, and favored by the multitude of his brothers, **seeking** good for his people and speaking peace to all its seed. (Esther 10:3 ULT)
#### SELLING means handing over to someone’s control
#### BUYING represents removing from someone’s control
> [Yahweh] ***sold*** [the Israelites] into the hand of Cushan Rishathaim king of Aram Naharaim. (Judges 3:8 ULT)
> … \[Yahweh\] **sold** \[the Israelites\] into the hand of Cushan-Rishathaim, the king of Aram Naharaim. (Judges 3:8a ULT)
#### SITTING means reigning, ruling, or judging
> A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness, and one from David’s tent will faithfully ***sit*** there. (Isaiah 16:5 ULT)
> …in those days, as the king Ahasuerus ***sat*** on his royal throne which was in Susa the citadel… (Esther 1:2 ULT)
> A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness, and one from David’s tent will faithfully **sit** there. (Isaiah 16:5a ULT)
>
> … in those days, as the king Ahasuerus **sat** on his royal throne, which was in Susa the citadel: (Esther 1:2 ULT)
#### STANDING means defending or successfully resisting
> So the wicked will not ***stand*** in the judgment, nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous. (Psalm 1:2 ULT)
> …that the king gave to the Jews who were in every city by city: to gather and to ***stand*** for their life, to annihiliate, and to slaughter, and to destroy any strength of a people or province that would attack them, children and women, and plunder their spoil… (Esther 8:11 ULT)
> So the wicked will not **stand** in the judgment, nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous. (Psalm 1:5 ULT)
>
> that the king gave to the Jews who were in every city by city: to gather and to **stand** for their life, to annihilate, and to slaughter, and to destroy any strength of a people or province that would attack them, children and women, and plunder their spoil; (Esther 8:11 ULT)
#### TURNING or TURNING OVER means changing
> …as the days when the Jews rested on them from their enemies, and as the month when it had ***turned*** for them from sorrow into joy and from mourning into a good day, in order to make them days of feasting and rejoicing and sending of gifts, a man to his friend, and gifts to the needy. (Esther 9:22 ULT)
> … as the days when the Jews rested on them from their enemies, and as the month when it had **turned** for them from sorrow into joy and from mourning into a good day, in order to make them days of feasting and rejoicing and sending of gifts, a man to his friend, and gifts to the needy. (Esther 9:22 ULT)
#### Being UNCLEAN means not being acceptable for God’s purposes
> You may eat any animal that has a split hoof and that also chews the cud. However, some animals either chew the cud or have a split hoof, and ***you must not eat them***, animals such as the camel, because it chews the cud but does not have a split hoof. So the camel is ***unclean*** for you. (Leviticus 11:3-4 ULT)
> And if any of them dies and falls on anything, that thing will be ***unclean***, whether it is made of wood, cloth, leather, or sackcloth. Whatever it is and whatever it is used for, it must be put into water; it will be ***unclean*** until evening. Then it will be ***clean***. (Leviticus 11:32 ULT)
> You may eat any animal that has a split hoof and that also chews the cud. However, some animals either chew the cud or have a split hoof, and **you must not eat them**, animals such as the camel, because it chews the cud but does not have a split hoof. So the camel is **unclean** for you. (Leviticus 11:3-4 ULT)
>
> And if any of them dies and falls on anything, that thing will be **unclean**, whether it is made of wood, cloth, leather, or sackcloth. Whatever it is and whatever it is used for, it must be put into water; it will be **unclean** until evening. Then it will be **clean**. (Leviticus 11:32 ULT)
#### WALKING means behaving
#### a PATH or a WAY means a person's behavior
> Blessed is the man who does not ***walk*** in the advice of the wicked. (Psalm 1:1 ULT)
> For Yahweh approves of the ***way*** of the righteous. (Psalm 1:6 ULT)
> Turn from me the ***path*** of deceit. (Psalm 119:28 ULT)
> I will run in the ***path*** of your commandments. (Psalm 119:32 ULT)
#### a PATH or a WAY means a person’s behavior
> Blessed is the man who does not **walk** in the advice of the wicked. (Psalm 1:1a ULT)
>
> For Yahweh approves of the **way** of the righteous. (Psalm 1:6a ULT)
>
> Turn from me the **path** of deceit. (Psalm 119:29a ULT)
>
> I will run in the **path** of your commandments. (Psalm 119:32a ULT)

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#### BRONZE represents strength
> He trains…my arms to bend a bow of ***bronze***. (Psalm 18:34 ULT)
> He trains … my arms to bend a bow of **bronze**. (Psalm 18:34 ULT)
#### CHAINS represent control
> Let us tear off the ***shackles*** they put on us and throw off their ***chains***. Psalm 2:3
> "Let us tear off the **shackles** they put on us and throw off their **chains**." Psalm 2:3
#### CLOTHING represents moral or emotional qualities (attitudes, spirit, life)
> It is God who puts strength on me like a ***belt***. (Psalm 18:32 ULT)
> Righteousness will be the ***belt of his waist***, and faithfulness the ***belt around his hips***. (Isaiah 11:5 ULT)
> May my adversaries be ***clothed with shame***; may they ***wear their shame like a robe***. (Psalm 109:29 ULT)
> I will ***clothe his enemies with shame***. (Psalm 132:18 ULT)
> It is God who puts strength on me like a **belt**. (Psalm 18:32a ULT)
>
> Righteousness will be the **belt of his waist**, and faithfulness the **belt around his hips**. (Isaiah 11:5 ULT)
>
> May my adversaries be **clothed with shame**; may they **wear their shame like a robe**. (Psalm 109:29 ULT)
>
> I will **clothe his enemies with shame**. (Psalm 132:18a ULT)
#### A HOUSE represents a family or household (that is, the people who live and work at a family house or property)
> Now Yahweh said to Abram, “Go from your country, and from your relatives, and from your father’s ***household***, to the land that I will show you. (Genesis 12:1 ULT)
> Now Yahweh said to Abram, “Go from your country, and from your relatives, and from your father’s **household**, to the land that I will show you. (Genesis 12:1 ULT)
>
> On that day, the king Ahasuerus gave to Esther the queen the **house** of Haman, the adversary of the Jews. (Esther 8:1a ULT)
>
> They said, “Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved, you and your **household**.” They spoke the word of the Lord to him, together with everyone in his house. Then he took them at that same hour of the night, and washed them from the blows, and he was baptized immediately—he and all those who were his. (Acts 16:31-33 ULT)
> On that day, the king Ahasuerus gave to Esther the queen the ***house*** of Haman, the adversary of the Jews.
In the original languages (Hebrew and Greek), the words translated here as “household” literally mean “house.” The word “house” is a metonym for the people who live in the house. This is a very common metonym in the Bible.
> They said, “Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved, you and your ***household***.” 32 They spoke the word of the Lord to him, together with everyone in his house. 33 Then the jailer took them at the same hour of the night, and washed their wounds, and he and those in his entire house were baptized immediately. (Acts 16:31-33 ULT)
#### A HOUSE can represent a person’s descendants or possessions.
In the original languages (Hebrew and Greek), the words translated here as "household" literally mean "house". The word "house" is a metonym for the people who live in the house. This is a very common metonym in the Bible.
> You have even spoken about your servant’s family for a great while to come, and have shown me future generations, Lord Yahweh!… For you, Yahweh of hosts, the God of Israel, have revealed to your servant that you will build him a **house**. (2 Samuel 7:19, 27a ULT)
Here “house” represents David’s descendants.
> On that day, the king Ahasuerus gave to Esther the queen the **house** of Haman, the adversary of the Jews. (Esther 8:1 ULT)
Here “house” represents all of Haman’s property and possessions.
#### A HOUSE can represent a people group.
> Not a word failed from all the good things that Yahweh had spoken to the **house** of Israel; it all came to be. (Joshua 21:45 ULT)
Here “house” represents a people group, the people of Israel.
#### A SNARE (that is, a SMALL TRAP for birds worked by cords) represents death
> For he will rescue you from the ***snare*** of the hunter. (Psalm 91:3 ULT)
> The ***cords of death*** surrounded me, and the ***snares*** of sheol confronted me. (Psalm 116:3 ULT)
> The ***cords of the wicked*** have ***ensnared*** me. (Psalm 119:61 ULT)
> The wicked have ***set a snare*** for me. (Psalm 119:110 ULT)
> The wicked is ***ensnared*** by his own actions. (Psalm 9:16 ULT)
> They mingled with the nations and learned their ways and worshiped their idols, which became ***a snare*** to them. (Psalm 106:35-36 ULT)
> For he will rescue you from the **snare** of the hunter. (Psalm 91:3a ULT)
>
> The **cords of death** surrounded me, and the **snares** of sheol confronted me. (Psalm 116:3a ULT)
>
> The **cords of the wicked** have **ensnared** me. (Psalm 119:61a ULT)
>
> The wicked have **set a snare** for me. (Psalm 119:110a ULT)
>
> The wicked is **ensnared** by his own actions. (Psalm 9:16b ULT)
>
> They mingled with the nations and learned their ways and worshiped their idols, which became **a snare** to them. (Psalm 106:35-36 ULT)
In this case the snare was a persuasion to do evil, which leads to death.
#### A TENT represents a house, home, people in one’s home, descendants
> God will likewise destroy you forever; he will take you up and pluck you out of your tent. (Psalm 52:5 ULT)
> The house of the wicked will be destroyed, but the tent of the upright will flourish. (Proverbs 14:11 ULT)
> A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness, and one from David’s tent will faithfully sit there. (Isaiah 16:5 ULT)
> God will likewise destroy you forever; he will take you up and pluck you out of your **tent**. (Psalm 52:5a ULT)
>
> The house of the wicked will be destroyed, but the **tent** of the upright will flourish. (Proverbs 14:11 ULT)
>
> A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness, and one from David’s **tent** will faithfully sit there. (Isaiah 16:5a ULT)

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What are some examples things people make that are used as images in the Bible?
What are some examples of things people make that are used as images in the Bible?

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This page discusses ideas that are paired together in limited ways. (For a discussion of more complex pairings, see [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md).)
### Description
In all languages, most [metaphors](../figs-metaphor/01.md) come from broad patterns of pairings of items in which a physical Image represents an abstract Idea. For example, some languages have the pattern of pairing ***height*** with “much” and pairing ***being low*** with “not much,” so that ***height*** represents “much” and ***being low*** represents “not much.” This could be because when there is a lot of something in a pile, that pile will be high. So also if something costs a lot money, in some languages people would say that the price is ***high***, or if a city has more people in it than it used to have, we might say that its number of people has gone ***up***. Likewise if someone gets thinner and loses weight, we would say that their weight has gone ***down***.
In all languages, most [metaphors](../figs-metaphor/01.md) come from broad patterns of pairings of items in which a physical Image represents an abstract Idea. For example, some languages have the pattern of pairing **height** with “much” and pairing **being low** with “not much,” so that **height** represents “much” and **being low** represents “not much.” This could be because when there is a lot of something in a pile, that pile will be high. So also if something costs a lot money, in some languages people would say that the price is **high**, or if a city has more people in it than it used to have, we might say that its number of people has gone **up**. Likewise if someone gets thinner and loses weight, we would say that their weight has gone **down**.
The patterns found in the Bible are often unique to the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is useful to recognize these patterns because they repeatedly present translators with the same problems on how to translate them. Once translators think through how they will handle these translation challenges, they will be ready to meet them anywhere. (See the modules about [simple metaphors](../figs-simetaphor/01.md) and [extended metaphors](../figs-exmetaphor/01.md).)
The patterns found in the Bible are often unique to the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is useful to recognize these patterns because they repeatedly present translators with the same problems of how to translate them. Once translators think through how they will handle these translation challenges, they will be ready to meet them anywhere. (See the modules about [simple metaphors](../figs-simetaphor/01.md) and [extended metaphors](../figs-exmetaphor/01.md).)
For example, one pattern of pairings in the Bible is of WALKING representing “behaving” and a PATH representing a kind of behavior. In Psalm 1:1, to "walk" in the advice of the wicked represents doing what wicked people say to do.
For example, one pattern of pairings in the Bible is of WALKING representing “behaving” and a PATH representing a kind of behavior. In Psalm 1:1, to “walk” in the advice of the wicked represents doing what wicked people say to do.
> Blessed is the man who does not ***walk*** in the advice of the wicked (Psalm 1:1 ULT)
> Blessed is the man who does not **walk** in the advice of the wicked. (Psalm 1:1 ULT)
This pattern is also seen in Psalm 119:32 where running in the path of God’s commands represents doing what God commands. Since running is more intense than walking, the idea of running here might give the idea of doing this wholeheartedly.
This pattern is also seen in Psalm 119:32 where running in the path of God’s commands represents doing what God commands. Since running is more intense than walking, the idea of running here might give the idea of doing this whole-heartedly.
> I will **run in the path** of your commandments. (Psalm 119:32a ULT)
> I will ***run in the path*** of your commandments. (Psalm 119:32 ULT)
#### Reasons this is a translation Issue
#### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
These patterns present three challenges to anyone who wants to identify them:
(1) When looking at particular metaphors in the Bible, it is not always obvious what two ideas are paired with each other. For example, it may not be immediately obvious that the expression, "It is God who puts strength on me like a belt" (Psalm 18:32 ULT) is based on the pairing of CLOTHING with moral quality. In this case, the image of a BELT represents strength. (See “CLOTHING represents a moral quality” in [Biblical Imagery - Man-made Objects](../bita-manmade/01.md) as well as the module about [complex metaphors](../figs-cometaphor/01.md).)
(1) When looking at particular metaphors in the Bible, it is not always obvious what two ideas are paired with each other. For example, it may not be immediately obvious that the expression, “It is God who puts strength on me like a belt” (Psalm 18:32 ULT) is based on the pairing of CLOTHING with moral quality. In this case, the image of a BELT represents strength. (See “CLOTHING represents a moral quality” in [Biblical Imagery - Man-made Objects](../bita-manmade/01.md) as well as the module about [complex metaphors](../figs-cometaphor/01.md).)
(2) When looking at a particular expression, the translator needs to know whether or not it represents something. This can only be done by considering the surrounding text. The surrounding text shows us, for example, whether “lamp” refers literally to a container with oil and a wick for giving light or whether “lamp” is a metaphor that represents life. (See “LIGHT or FIRE represents life” in [Biblical Imagery - Natural Phenomena](../bita-phenom/01.md).)
In 1 Kings 7:50, a lamp trimmer is a tool for trimming the wick on an ordinary lamp. In 2 Samuel 21:17 the lamp of Israel represents King David’s life. When his men were concerned that he might “put out the lamp of Israel” they were concerned that he might be killed.
> The cups, ***lamp*** trimmers, basins, spoons, and incense burners were all made of pure gold. (1 Kings 7:50 ULT)
> Solomon also had made the cups, lamp trimmers, basins, spoons, and incense burners, all of which were made of pure gold. (1 Kings 7:50a ULT)
> Ishbibenob…intended to kill David. But Abishai the son of Zeruiah rescued David, attacked the Philistine, and killed him. Then the men of David swore to him, saying, “You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out the ***lamp*** of Israel.” (2 Samuel 21:16-17 ULT)
> Ishbibenob…intended to kill David. But Abishai the son of Zeruiah rescued David, attacked the Philistine, and killed him. Then the men of David swore to him, saying, “You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out the **lamp** of Israel.” (2 Samuel 21:16-17 ULT)
(3) Expressions that are based on these pairings of ideas frequently combine together in complex ways. Moreover, they frequently combine with (and in some cases are based on) common metonymies and cultural models. (See [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](../bita-part2/01.md) and [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md).)
For example, in 2 Samuel 14:7 below, “the burning coal” is an image for the life of the son, who represents what will cause people to remember his father. So there are two patterns of pairings here: the pairing of the burning coal with the life of the son, and the pairing of the son with the memory of his father.
> They say, ‘Hand over the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.’ And so they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out ***the burning coal*** that I have left, and they will leave for ***my husband neither name nor descendant*** on the surface of the earth. (2 Samuel 14:7 ULT)
> They say, ‘Hand over the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.’ And so they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out **the burning coal** that I have left, and they will leave for **my husband neither name nor descendant** on the surface of the earth. (2 Samuel 14:7 ULT)
#### Links to Lists of Images in the Bible

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Some very common [metonymies](../figs-metonymy/01.md) from the Bible are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters identifies an Image that represents an Idea. The specific word of the Image may not appear in every verse that uses the Image, but the text will communicate somehow the concept of the Image.
#### A CUP or BOWL represents what is inside it
> my ***cup*** runs over. (Psalm 23:5 ULT)
> My **cup** runs over. (Psalm 23:5b ULT)
There is so much in the cup that it runs over the top of the cup.
> For every time you eat this bread and drink this ***cup***, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes. (1 Corinthians 11:26 ULT)
> For every time you eat this bread and drink this **cup**, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes. (1 Corinthians 11:26 ULT)
People do not drink cups. They drink what is in the cup.
#### A LOCATION (city, nation, etc.) represents the people who live in or near that place
> Then Mordecai went out from before the face of the king in a garment of royalty of blue and white, with a great crown of gold and a robe of fine linen and purple, and ***the city of Susa*** cheered and rejoiced. (Esther 8:15 ULT)
> Then Mordecai went out from before the face of the king in a garment of royalty of blue and white, with a great crown of gold and a robe of fine linen and purple, and **the city of Susa** cheered and rejoiced. (Esther 8:15 ULT)
>
> So as for me, should I not feel troubled about **Nineveh, the great city **… (Jonah 4:11a ULT)
> So as for me, should I not feel troubled about ***Nineveh, the great city***… (Jonah 4:11a ULT)
#### The MEMORY OF A PERSON means [his descendants]
#### The MEMORY OF A PERSON means \[his descendants\]
The memory of a person represents his descendants, because they are the ones who should remember and honor him. When the Bible says that someone’s memory dies, it means that either he will not have any descendants, or his descendants will all die.
> You terrified the nations with your battle cry;
> you have destroyed the wicked;
> you have blotted out ***their memory*** forever.
> The enemy crumbled like ruins
> when you overthrew their cities.
> All ***remembrance of them*** has perished. (Psalm 9:5-6 ULT)
> ***His memory*** will perish from the earth (Job 18:17 ULT)
> Yahweh is against evildoers,
> in order to wipe out ***their memory*** from the earth. (Psalm 34:16 ULT)
> You have rebuked the nations;
> you have destroyed the wicked;
> you have blotted out **their memory** forever.
> The enemy crumbled like ruins
> when you overthrew their cities.
> All **remembrance of them** has perished. (Psalm 9:5-6 ULT)
>
> **His memory** will perish from the earth. (Job 18:17a ULT)
>
> The face of Yahweh is against those who do evil, to cut off **the memory of them** from the earth. (Psalm 34:16 ULT)
#### ONE PERSON means \[a group of people\]
#### ONE PERSON means [a group of people]
> For ***the wicked person*** boasts of his deepest desires;
> For **the wicked person** boasts of his deepest desires;
> he blesses the greedy and insults Yahweh. (Psalm 10:3 ULT)
This does not refer to a particular wicked person, but to wicked people in general.
#### A PERSON’S NAME means [his descendants]
#### A PERSON’S NAME means \[his descendants\]
> Gad—raiders will attack him, but he will attack them at their heels.
> Asher’s food will be rich, and he will provide royal delicacies.
> Naphtali is a doe let loose; he will have beautiful fawns. (Genesis 49:19-21 ULT)
> **Gad**—raiders will attack him, but he will attack them at their heels.
> **Asher’s** food will be rich, and he will provide royal delicacies.
> **Naphtali** is a doe let loose; he will have beautiful fawns. (Genesis 49:19-21 ULT)
The names Gad, Asher, and Naphtali refer not only to those men, but to their descendants.
#### A PERSON means [himself and the people with him]
#### A PERSON means \[himself and the people with him\]
> It came about that when Abram entered into Egypt, the Egyptians saw that Sarai was very beautiful. (Genesis 12:14 ULT)
> It came about that when \*\*Abram\*\* entered into Egypt, the Egyptians saw that Sarai was very beautiful. (Genesis 12:14 ULT)
Here when it says “Abram” it represents Abram and all the people traveling with him. The focus was on Abram.
#### PIERCING means [killing]
#### PIERCING means \[killing\]
> His hand ***pierced*** the fleeing serpent. (Job 26:13 ULT)
> His hand **pierced** the fleeing serpent. (Job 26:13b ULT)
This means that he killed the serpent.
> Look, he is coming with the clouds; every eye will see him, including those who ***pierced*** him. (Revelation 1:7 ULT)
> Look, he is coming with the clouds; every eye will see him, including those who **pierced** him. (Revelation 1:7 ULT)
“Those who pierced him” refers to those who killed Jesus.
#### SINS (or INIQUITY) means [punishment for wrongdoing]
#### SINS (or INIQUITY) means \[punishment for wrongdoing\]
> Yahweh has placed on him the ***iniquity*** of us all (Isaiah 53:6 ULT)
> Yahweh has placed on him the **iniquity** of us all (Isaiah 53:6b ULT)
This means that Yahweh placed on him the punishment that should have gone to all of us.

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### Description
Cultural models are mental images that the people of a culture use to think about and to talk about certain aspects of life or behavior. For example, Americans often think of many things, even marriage and friendship, as if they were machines. Americans might say “His marriage is breaking down” or “Their friendship is going full speed ahead.” In this example, human relationships are modeled as a MACHINE. One can say that cultural models are [complex metaphors](../figs-cometaphor/01.md) that are commonly used by people of a particular culture.
@ -7,97 +6,96 @@ Some common cultural models found in the Bible are listed below. First there are
#### God is modeled as a KING
> For God is the ***King*** over all the earth; (Psalm 47:7 ULT)
> For the ***kingdom*** is Yahweh’s;
> he is the ***ruler*** over the nations. (Psalm 22:28 ULT)
> Your ***throne***, God, is forever and ever;
> a ***scepter*** of justice is the scepter of your ***kingdom***. (Psalm 45:6 ULT)
> This is what Yahweh says,
> “Heaven is my ***throne***, and the earth is my ***footstool***. (Isaiah 66:1 ULT)
> God ***reigns*** over the nations;
> God sits on his holy ***throne***.
> The ***princes*** of the peoples have gathered together
> to the people of the God of Abraham;
> for the ***shields*** of the earth belong to God;
> he is greatly exalted. (Psalm 47:8-9 ULT)
> For God is the **King** over all the earth. (Psalm 47:7a ULT)
>
> For the **kingdom** is Yahweh’s;
> he is the **ruler** over the nations. (Psalm 22:28 ULT)
>
> Your **throne**, God, is forever and ever;
> a **scepter** of justice is the scepter of your **kingdom**. (Psalm 45:6 ULT)
>
> This is what Yahweh says,
> “Heaven is my **throne**, and the earth is my **footstool**. (Isaiah 66:1a ULT)
>
> God **reigns** over the nations;
> God sits on his holy **throne**.
> The **princes** of the peoples have gathered together
> to the people of the God of Abraham;
> for the **shields** of the earth belong to God;
> he is greatly \*\*exalted\*\*. (Psalm 47:8-9 ULT)
#### God is modeled as a WARRIOR
> Yahweh is a ***warrior***; (Exodus 15:3 ULT)
> Yahweh will go out as a ***warrior***; he will proceed as a ***man of war***. He will stir up his zeal.
> He will shout, yes, he will roar his ***battle cries***; he will ***show his enemies his power***. (Isaiah 42:13 ULT)
> Your right hand, Yahweh, is ***glorious in power***;
> your right hand, Yahweh, ***has shattered the enemy***. (Exodus 15:6 ULT)
> But ***God will shoot them***;
> suddenly they will be ***wounded with his arrows***. (Psalm 65:7 ULT)
> For you will turn them back; ***you will draw your bow*** before them. (Psalm 21:12 ULT)
> Yahweh is a **warrior**. (Exodus 15:3a ULT)
>
> Yahweh will go out as a **warrior**; as a \*\*man of war\*\* he will stir up his zeal..
> He will shout, yes, he will roar his **battle cries**; he will **show his enemies his power**. (Isaiah 42:13 ULT)
>
> Your right hand, Yahweh, is **glorious in power**;
> your right hand, Yahweh, **has shattered the enemy**. (Exodus 15:6 ULT)
>
> But **God will shoot them**;
> suddenly they will be **wounded with his arrows**. (Psalm 64:7 ULT)
>
> For you will turn them back; **you will draw your bow** before them. (Psalm 21:12 ULT)
#### A leader is modeled as a SHEPHERD and those he leads are modeled as SHEEP
> Then all the tribes of Israel came to David at Hebron and said, “Look…when Saul was king over us, it was you who led the Israelite army. Yahweh said to you, ‘You will ***shepherd*** my people Israel, and you will become ruler over Israel.’“ (2 Samuel 5:1-2 ULT)
> “Woe to the ***shepherds*** who destroy and scatter the ***sheep*** of my ***pasture***—this is Yahweh’s declaration.” (Jeremiah 23:1 ULT)
> Therefore be careful about yourselves, and about all the ***flock*** of which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers. Be careful to ***shepherd*** the assembly of the Lord, which he purchased with his own blood. 29I know that after my departure, vicious wolves will enter in among you, and not spare the ***flock***. I know that from even among your own selves some men shall come and say corrupt things, in order to draw away the disciples after them. (Acts 20:28-30 ULT)
> Then all the tribes of Israel came to David at Hebron and said, “Look…when Saul was king over us, it was you who led the Israelite army. Yahweh said to you, ‘You will **shepherd** my people Israel, and you will become ruler over Israel.’“ (2 Samuel 5:1-2 ULT)
>
> “Woe to the **shepherds** who destroy and scatter the **sheep** of my **pasture**—this is Yahweh’s declaration.” (Jeremiah 23:1 ULT)
>
> Guard yourselves and all the **flock** of which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers. Be careful to **shepherd** the church of God, which he purchased with his own blood. I know that after my departure, vicious wolves will come in among you, not sparing the **flock**. Even among you yourselves, men will come speaking perverse things which draw away the disciples after them. (Acts 20:28-30 ULT)
#### Life is modeled as BLOOD
In this model, the blood of a person or an animal represents its life.
> But you must not eat meat with ***its life—that is its blood***—in it. (Genesis 9:4 ULT)
> But you must not eat meat with **its life—that is its blood**—in it. (Genesis 9:4 ULT)
If blood is spilled or shed, someone has been killed.
> Whoever ***sheds man’s blood***, by man will his ***blood be shed***, (Genesis 9:6 ULT)
> In this way, this person would not die by the hand of the one who wanted to avenge ***the blood that was shed***, until the accused person would first stand before the assembly. (Joshua 20:9 ULT)
> Whoever **sheds man’s blood**, by man will his **blood be shed**. (Genesis 9:6a ULT)
>
> In this way, this person would not die by the hand of the one who wanted to avenge **the blood that was shed**, until the accused person would first stand before the assembly. (Joshua 20:9b ULT)
If blood cries out, nature itself is crying out for vengeance on a person who killed someone. (This also includes personification, because the blood is pictured as someone that can cry out. See: [Personification](../figs-personification/01.md))
> Yahweh said, “What have you done? ***Your brother’s blood is calling out to me*** from the ground. (Genesis 4:10 ULT)
> Yahweh said, “What have you done? **Your brother’s blood is calling out to me** from the ground. (Genesis 4:10 ULT)
#### A country is modeled as a WOMAN, and its gods are modeled as HER HUSBAND
> It came about, as soon as Gideon was dead, the people of Israel turned again and ***prostituted themselves*** by worshiping the Baals. They made Baal Berith their god. (Judges 8:33 ULT)
> Now it happened that when Gideon had died, the sons of Israel turned back again and **pursued adulterously** after the Baals. They made Baal-Berith for themselves as a god. (Judges 8:33 ULT)
#### The nation of Israel is modeled as GOD’S SON
> When Israel was a young man I loved him, and I called ***my son*** out of Egypt. (Hosea 11:1 ULT)
> When Israel was a young man I loved him, and I called **my son** out of Egypt. (Hosea 11:1 ULT)
#### The sun is modeled as BEING IN A CONTAINER when it is not visible
> Yet their words go out over all the earth and their speech to the end of the world. He has pitched ***a tent for the sun*** among them. The sun is like a bridegroom coming out of ***his chamber*** and like a strong man who rejoices when he runs his race. (Psalm 19:4-5 ULT)
> Yet their words go out over all the earth and their speech to the end of the world. He has pitched **a tent for the sun** among them. The sun is like a bridegroom coming out of **his chamber** and like a strong man who rejoices when he runs his race. (Psalm 19:4-5 ULT)
Psalm 110 pictures the sun as being in the womb before it comes out in the morning.
> from ***the womb*** of the dawn your youth will be to you like the dew. (Psalm 110:3 ULT)
> From **the womb** of the dawn your youth will be to you like the dew. (Psalm 110:3b ULT)
#### Things that can move fast are modeled as having WINGS
This is especially true of things that move in the air or the sky.
The sun is modeled as a disc with wings, which allow it to “fly” through the air from east to west during the daytime. In Psalm 139, “the wings of the morning” refers to the sun. In Malachi 4 God called himself the “sun of righteousness” and he spoke of the sun as having wings.
The sun is modeled as a disc with wings which allow it to “fly” through the air from east to west during the daytime. In Psalm 139, “the wings of the morning” refers to the sun. In Malachi 4 God called himself the “sun of righteousness” and he spoke of the sun as having wings.
> If I fly away on ***the wings of the morning*** and go to live in the uttermost parts across the sea… (Psalm 139:9 ULT)
> But for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing ***in its wings***. (Malachi 4:2 ULT)
> If I fly away on **the wings of the morning** and go to live in the uttermost parts across the sea … (Psalm 139:9 ULT)
> But for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing **in its wings**. (Malachi 4:2 ULT)
The wind moves quickly and is modeled as having wings.
> He was seen flying on the ***wings of the wind***. (2 Sam. 22:11 ULT)
> He rode on a cherub and flew; he glided on the ***wings of the wind***. (Psalm 18:10 ULT)
> you walk on the ***wings of the wind*** (Psalm 104:3 ULT)
> He was seen on the **wings of the wind**. (2 Sam. 22:11b ULT)
> He rode on a cherub and flew; he glided on the **wings of the wind**. (Psalm 18:10 ULT)
> you walk on the **wings of the wind** (Psalm 104:3 ULT)
#### Futility is modeled as something that the WIND can blow away
@ -105,71 +103,70 @@ In this model, the wind blows away things that are worthless, and they are gone.
Psalm 1 and Job 27 show that wicked people are worthless and will not live long.
> The wicked are not so,
> but are instead ***like the chaff that the wind drives away***. (Psalm 1:4 ULT)
> ***The east wind carries him away***, and he leaves;
> ***it sweeps him out of his place***. (Job 27:21 ULT)
> The wicked are not so,
> but are instead **like the chaff that the wind drives away**. (Psalm 1:4 ULT)
> **The east wind carries him away**, and he leaves;
> **it sweeps him out of his place**. (Job 27:21 ULT)
The writer of Ecclesiastes says that everything is worthless.
> ***Like a vapor of mist***,
> ***like a breeze in the wind***,
> everything vanishes, leaving many questions.
> What profit does mankind gain from all the work that they labor at under the sun? (Ecclesiastes 1:2-3 ULT)
> "**Like a vapor of mist**,
> **like a breeze in the wind**,
> everything vanishes, leaving many questions.
> What profit does mankind gain from all the work that they labor at under the sun?" (Ecclesiastes 1:2-3 ULT)
In Job 30:15, Job complains that his honor and prosperity are gone.
> Terrors are turned upon me;
> my honor is ***driven away as if by the wind***;
> my prosperity ***passes away as a cloud***. (Job 30:15 ULT)
> Terrors are turned upon me;
> my honor is **driven away as if by the wind**;
> my prosperity **passes away as a cloud**. (Job 30:15 ULT)
#### Human warfare is modeled as DIVINE WARFARE
When there was a war between nations, people believed that the gods of those nations were also at war.
> This happened while the Egyptians were burying all their firstborn, those whom Yahweh had killed among them, for ***he also inflicted punishment on their gods***. (Numbers 33:4 ULT)
> And what nation is like your people Israel, the one nation on earth whom you, God, went and rescued for yourself?…You drove out nations ***and their gods*** from before your people, whom you rescued from Egypt. (2 Samuel 7:23 ULT)
> The servants of the king of Aram said to him, “***Their god is a god of the hills. That is why they were stronger than we were***. But now let us fight against them in the plain, and surely there we will be stronger than they.” (1 Kings 20:23 ULT)
> This happened while the Egyptians were burying all their firstborn, those whom Yahweh had killed among them, for **he also inflicted punishment on their gods**. (Numbers 33:4 ULT)
> And what nation is like your people Israel, the one nation on earth whom you, God, went and rescued for yourself? … You drove out nations **and their gods** from before your people, whom you rescued from Egypt. (2 Samuel 7:23 ULT)
> The servants of the king of Aram said to him, “**Their god is a god of the hills. That is why they were stronger than we were**. But now let us fight against them in the plain, and surely there we will be stronger than they are.” (1 Kings 20:23 ULT)
#### Constraints in life are modeled as PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES
The verses below are not about real physical boundaries but about difficulties or the lack of difficulties in life.
> He has built ***a wall*** around me, and I cannot escape. He has made my shackles heavy. (Lamentations 3:7 ULT)
> He has blocked my path with ***walls of hewn stone***; every way I take is crooked. (Lamentations 3:9 ULT)
> ***Measuring lines*** have been laid for me in pleasant places (Psalm 16:6 ULT)
> He has built **a wall** around me, and I cannot escape. He has made my shackles heavy. (Lamentations 3:7 ULT)
> He blocked my path with **a wall of hewn stone**; he made my paths crooked. (Lamentations 3:9 ULT)
> **Measuring lines** have been laid for me in pleasant places. (Psalm 16:6a ULT)
#### Dangerous places are modeled as NARROW PLACES
In Psalm 4 David asks God to rescue him.
> Answer me when I call, God of my righteousness;
> give me room ***when I am hemmed in***.
> Answer me when I call, God of my righteousness;
> give me room **when I am hemmed in**.
> Have mercy on me and listen to my prayer. (Psalm 4:1 ULT)
#### A distressing situation is modeled as a WILDERNESS
When Job was distressed because of all the sad things that happened to him, he spoke as if he were in a wilderness. Jackals and ostriches are animals that live in the wilderness.
> My heart is troubled and does not rest;
> days of affliction have come on me.
> I go about with darkened skin but not because of the sun;
> I stand up in the assembly and cry for help.
> I am ***a brother to jackals***,
> ***a companion of ostriches***. (Job 30:27-29 ULT)
> My heart is troubled and does not rest;
> days of affliction have come on me.
> I have gone about like one who was living in the dark, but not because of the sun;
> I stand up in the assembly and cry for help.
> I am **a brother to jackals**,
> **a companion of ostriches**. (Job 30:27-29 ULT)
#### Wellbeing is modeled as PHYSICAL CLEANLINESS, and evil is modeled as PHYSICAL DIRTINESS
Leprosy is a disease. If a person had it, he was said to be unclean.
> Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, “Lord, if you are willing, ***you can make me clean***.” Jesus reached out his hand and touched him, saying, “I am willing. Be clean.” Immediately he was ***cleansed of his leprosy.*** (Matthew 8:2-3 ULT)
> Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, “Lord, if you are willing, **you can make me clean**.” Jesus reached out his hand and touched him, saying, “I am willing. Be clean.” Immediately he was **cleansed of his leprosy.** (Matthew 8:2-3 ULT)
An “unclean spirit” is an evil spirit.
> When an ***unclean spirit*** has gone away from a man, it passes through waterless places and looks for rest, but does not find it. (Matthew 12:43 ULT)
> When an **unclean spirit** has gone away from a man, it passes through waterless places and looks for rest, but does not find it. (Matthew 12:43 ULT)

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@ -2,141 +2,128 @@ Some common [metonymies](../figs-metonymy/01.md) and [metaphors](../figs-metapho
#### LIGHT represents moral righteousness, DARKNESS represents moral wickedness
> Woe to those ***who call evil good, and good evil***; ***who represent darkness as light, and light as darkness***; who represent bitter as sweet, and sweet as bitter! (Isaiah 5:20 ULT)
> But if your eye is ***bad***, your whole body is ***full of darkness***. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually ***darkness***, how great is that ***darkness***! (Matthew 6:23 ULT)
> Woe to those **who call evil good, and good evil**; **who represent darkness as light, and light as darkness**; who represent bitter as sweet, and sweet as bitter! (Isaiah 5:20 ULT)
>
> But if your eye is **bad**, your whole body is **full of darkness**. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually **darkness**, how great is that **darkness**! (Matthew 6:23 ULT)
#### LIGHT or SWEETNESS represents pleasant feelings, DARKNESS or BITTERNESS represents unpleasant feelings
> Truly the ***light is sweet***, and it is a ***pleasant thing*** for the eyes to see the sun. (Ecclesiastes 11:7 ULT)
> I am a man who has seen ***misery*** under the rod of Yahweh’s fury. He drove me away and caused me to walk in ***darkness*** rather than light. (Lamentations 3:1-2 ULT)
> Truly the **light is sweet**, and it is a **pleasant thing** for the eyes to see the sun. (Ecclesiastes 11:7 ULT)
>
> I am a man who has seen **misery** under the rod of Yahweh’s fury. He drove me away and caused me to walk in **darkness** rather than light. (Lamentations 3:1-2 ULT)
#### LIGHT represents wisdom, DARKNESS represents foolishness
> Then I began to understand that ***wisdom has advantages over folly***, just as ***light is better than darkness***. (Ecclesiastes 2:13 ULT)
> They are ***darkened in their understanding***, being alienated from the life of God because of the ***ignorance*** that is in them, because of the ***hardness of their hearts***. (Ephesians 4:18 ULT)
> For with you is the fountain of life; ***in your light we will see light***. (Psalm 36:9 ULT)
> Then I began to understand that **wisdom has advantages over folly**, just as **light is better than darkness**. (Ecclesiastes 2:13 ULT)
>
> They are **darkened in their understanding**, being alienated from the life of God because of the **ignorance** that is in them, because of the **hardness of their hearts**. (Ephesians 4:18 ULT)
>
> For with you is the fountain of life; **in your light we will see light**. (Psalm 36:9 ULT)
#### LIGHT or FIRE represents life
> They say, ‘Hand over the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.’ And so they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out the ***burning coal*** that I have left, and they will leave for my husband neither name nor descendant on the surface of the earth. (2 Samuel 14:7 ULT)
> You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out the ***lamp of Israel***. (2 Samuel 21:17 ULT)
> I will give one tribe to Solomon’s son, so that David my servant may always have ***a lamp*** before me in Jerusalem. (1 Kings 11:36 ULT)
> Nevertheless for David’s sake, Yahweh his God gave him ***a lamp*** in Jerusalem by raising up his son after him in order to strengthen Jerusalem. (1 Kings 15:4 ULT)
> Indeed, ***the light*** of the wicked person will be put out; ***the spark of his fire*** will not shine. ***The light*** will be dark in his tent; ***his lamp*** above him will be put out. (Job 18:5-6 ULT)
> For you give ***light to my lamp***; Yahweh my God ***lights up my darkness***. (Psalm 18:28 ULT)
> A ***dimly burning wick*** he will not quench. (Isaiah 42:3 ULT)
> They say, ‘Give into our hand the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.’ And so they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out the **burning coal** that I have left, and they will leave for my husband neither name nor descendant on the surface of the earth. (2 Samuel 14:7b ULT)
>
> "You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out the **lamp of Israel**." (2 Samuel 21:17b ULT)
>
> I will give one tribe to Solomon’s son, so that David my servant may always have **a lamp** before me in Jerusalem. (1 Kings 11:36a ULT)
>
> Nevertheless for David’s sake, Yahweh his God gave him **a lamp** in Jerusalem by raising up his son after him in order to strengthen Jerusalem. (1 Kings 15:4 ULT)
>
> Indeed, **the light** of the wicked person will be put out; **the spark of his fire** will not shine. **The light** will be dark in his tent; **his lamp** above him will be put out. (Job 18:5-6 ULT)
>
> For you give **light to my lamp**; Yahweh my God **lights up my darkness**. (Psalm 18:28 ULT)
>
> A **dimly burning wick** he will not quench. (Isaiah 42:3b ULT)
#### DARKNESS or SHADOW represents death
> Yet you have severely broken us in the place of jackals and covered us with the ***shadow of death***. (Psalm 44:19 ULT)
> Yet you have severely broken us in the place of jackals and covered us with the **shadow of death**. (Psalm 44:19 ULT)
#### LIGHT OF THE FACE represents smiling (that is, an attitude of grace or favor)
> Yahweh, lift up the ***light of your face*** on us. (Psalm 4:6 ULT)
> For they did not obtain the land for their possession by their own sword,
> neither did their own arm save them;
> but your right hand, your arm, and the ***light of your face***,
> Yahweh, lift up the **light of your face** on us. (Psalm 4:6b ULT)
>
> For they did not obtain the land for their possession by their own sword,
> neither did their own arm save them;
> but your right hand, your arm, and the **light of your face**,
> because you were favorable to them. (Psalm 44:3 ULT)
> they did not reject the ***light of my face***. (Job 29:24 ULT)
> Yahweh, they walk in the ***light of your face***. (Psalm 89:15 ULT)
>
> they did not reject the **light of my face**. (Job 29:24b ULT)
>
> Yahweh, they walk in the **light of your face**. (Psalm 89:15b ULT)
#### FIRE represents extreme feelings, particularly love or anger
> Because iniquity will be increased, the love of many will ***be extinguished***. (Matthew 24:12 ULT)
> Surging waters cannot ***quench*** love. (Song of Songs 8:7 ULT)
> For ***a fire is kindled by my anger*** and ***is burning*** to the lowest sheol. (Deuteronomy 32:22 ULT)
> Therefore ***the anger of Yahweh was set on fire*** against Israel. (Judges 3:8 ULT)
> When Yahweh heard this, ***he was angry***; so ***his fire burned*** against Jacob, and ***his anger*** attacked Israel. (Psalm 78:21 ULT)
> Because lawlessness will increase, the love of many will **grow cold**. (Matthew 24:12 ULT)
>
> Surging waters cannot **quench** love. (Song of Songs 8:7a ULT)
>
> For **a fire is kindled by my anger** and **is burning** to the lowest Sheol. (Deuteronomy 32:22a ULT)
>
> Therefore **the anger of Yahweh blazed** against Israel. (Judges 3:8a ULT)
>
> When Yahweh heard this, **he was angry**; so **his fire burned** against Jacob, and **his anger** attacked Israel. (Psalm 78:21 ULT)
#### A WIDE SPACE represents safety, security, and ease
#### A WIDE SPACE reperesents safety, security, and ease
> They came against me on the day of my distress but Yahweh was my support.
> He set me free in ***a wide open place***; he saved me because he was pleased with me. (Psalms 18:18-19 ULT)
> You have made ***a wide place*** for my feet beneath me,
> They came against me on the day of my distress but Yahweh was my support.
> He set me free in **a wide open place**; he saved me because he was pleased with me. (Psalms 18:18-19 ULT)
>
> You have made **a wide place** for my feet beneath me,
> so my feet have not slipped. (2 Samuel 22:37 ULT)
> You made people ride over our heads;
> we went through fire and water,
> but you brought us out into ***a spacious place***. (Psalms 66:12 ULT)
>
> You made people ride over our heads;
> we went through fire and water,
> but you brought us out into **a spacious place**. (Psalms 66:12 ULT)
#### A NARROW SPACE represents danger or difficulties
> Answer me when I call, God of my righteousness;
> give me room when ***I am hemmed in***.
> Answer me when I call, God of my righteousness;
> give me room when **I am hemmed in**.
> Have mercy on me and listen to my prayer. (Psalm 4:1 ULT)
> For a prostitute is a deep pit,
> and an immoral woman is ***a narrow well***. (Proverbs 23:27 ULT)
>
> For a prostitute is a deep pit,
> and an immoral woman is **a narrow well**. (Proverbs 23:27 ULT)
#### WATER or LIQUID represents a moral or emotional quality (attitude, spirit, life)
> Yahweh has burst through my enemies before me like a bursting ***flood of water***. (2 Samuel 5:20 ULT)
> He will make a full end to his enemies with an overwhelming ***flood***. (Nahum 1:8 ULT)
> My heart ***drips*** because of sadness. (Psalm 119:28 ULT)
> I am being ***poured out like water***. (Psalm 22:14 ULT)
> It will come about afterward that I will ***pour out*** my Spirit on all flesh. (Joel 2:28 ULT)
> My God, my soul has ***melted*** within me. (Psalm 42:6 ULT)
> For it is great, the anger of Yahweh that has been ***poured out*** on us. (2 Chronicles 34:21 ULT)
> Yahweh has burst through my enemies before me like a bursting **flood of water**. (2 Samuel 5:20 ULT)
>
> He will make a complete end to his enemies with an overwhelming **flood**. (Nahum 1:8a ULT)
>
> I am being **poured out like water**. (Psalm 22:14a ULT)
>
> It will come about afterward that I will **pour out** my Spirit on all flesh. (Joel 2:28a ULT)
>
> For it is great, the anger of Yahweh that has been **poured out** on us. (2 Chronicles 34:21b ULT)
#### FLOODING WATER represents disaster
> I have come into ***deep waters***, where the ***floods flow*** over me. (Psalm 69:2 ULT)
> Do not let the ***floods of water*** overwhelm me. (Psalm 69:15 ULT)
> Reach out your hand from above; rescue me out of ***many waters*** from the hands of these foreigners. (Psalm 144:7 ULT)
> I have come into **deep waters**, where the **floods flow** over me. (Psalm 69:2b ULT)
>
> Do not let the **floods of water** overwhelm me. (Psalm 69:15a ULT)
>
> Reach out your hand from above; rescue me out of **many waters** from the hand of foreigners. (Psalm 144:7 ULT)
#### A FOUNTAIN or SPRING OF WATER represents the origin or source of something
> The fear of Yahweh is a ***fountain of life***. (Proverbs 14:27 ULT)
> For with you is the ***fountain of life***; in your light we will see light. (Psalm 36:9 ULT)
> The fear of Yahweh is a **fountain of life**. (Proverbs 14:27a ULT)
>
> For with you is the **fountain of life**; in your light we will see light. (Psalm 36:9 ULT)
#### LIQUID represents what someone says
> A quarreling wife is a constant ***dripping of water***. (Proverbs 19:13 ULT)
> His lips are lilies, ***dripping myrrh***. (Song of Songs 5:13 ULT)
> My groaning is ***poured out like water***. (Job 3:24 ULT)
> The words of a man’s mouth are ***deep waters***; the ***fountain of wisdom*** is a flowing stream. (Proverbs 18:3 ULT)
> A quarreling wife is a constant **dripping of water**. (Proverbs 19:13b ULT)
>
> His lips are lilies, **dripping liquid myrrh**. (Song of Songs 5:13b ULT)
>
> My groaning is **poured out like water**. (Job 3:24b ULT)
>
> The words of a man’s mouth are **deep waters**; the **fountain of wisdom** is a flowing stream. (Proverbs 18:4 ULT)
#### A ROCK represents salvation or protection
> Who is a ***rock*** except our God? (Psalm 18:31 ULT)
> Yahweh, ***my rock***, and my redeemer. (Psalm 19:14 ULT)
> Who is a **rock** except our God? (Psalm 18:31b ULT)
>
> Yahweh, **my rock**, and my redeemer. (Psalm 19:14b ULT)

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Some common [metonymies](../figs-metonymy/01.md) and [metaphors](../figs-metaphor/01.md) from the Bible involving plants are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters identifies an Image which represents an Idea. The specific word of the Image may not appear in every verse that uses the Image, but the text will communicate somehow the concept of the Image.
Some common [metonymies](../figs-metonymy/01.md) and [metaphors](../figs-metaphor/01.md) from the Bible involving plants are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters identifies an Image which represents an Idea. The specific word of the Image may not appear in every verse that uses the Image, but the text will communicate somehow the concept of the Image.
#### A BRANCH represents a person’s descendant
In the examples below, Isaiah wrote about one of Jesse’s descendants and Jeremiah wrote about one of David’s descendants.
> ***A shoot*** will sprout from the root of Jesse, and ***a branch*** out of his root will bear fruit.
> The Spirit of Yahweh will rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding. (Isaiah 11:1 ULT)
> See, days are coming—this is Yahweh’s declaration—when I will raise up for David ***a righteous branch***.
> He will reign as king; he will bring prosperity and carry out justice and righteousness in the land. (Jeremiah 23:5 ULT)
> **A shoot** will sprout from the root of Jesse, and **a branch** out of his root will bear fruit. (Isaiah 11:1 ULT)
>
> See, the days are coming—this is Yahweh’s declaration—when I will raise up for David a righteous **branch**. He will reign as king; he will act wisely and cause justice and righteousness in the land. (Jeremiah 23:5 ULT)
In Job when it says “his branch will be cut off,” it means that he will not have any descendants.
> His roots will be dried up beneath;
> above will ***his branch be cut off***.
> His memory will perish from the earth;
> he will have no name in the street. (Job 18:17 ULT)
> His roots will be dried up beneath;
> above will **his branch be cut off**.
> His memory will perish from the earth;
> he will have no name in the street. (Job 18:16-17 ULT)
#### A PLANT represents a person
> God will likewise destroy you forever; he will…***root you out*** of the land of the living. (Psalm 52:5 ULT)
> God will likewise destroy you forever; he will … **root you out** of the land of the living. (Psalm 52:5 ULT)
#### A PLANT represents an emotion or attitude
#### A PLANT represents actions or behaviors
Just as planting one kind of seeds results in that kind of plant growing, behaving in one way results in that kind of consequence.
The emotion or attitude in the verses is underlined below.
> Sow ***righteousness*** for yourselves, and reap the fruit of ***covenant faithfulness***. (Hosea 10:12 ULT)
> Based on what I have observed, those who plow ***iniquity*** and sow ***trouble***, reap the same. (Job 4:8 ULT)
> For the people sow ***the wind*** and reap ***the whirlwind***. (Hosea 8:7 ULT)
> You have turned…the fruit of ***righteousness*** into bitterness. (Amos 6:12 ULT)
> What fruit then did you have at that time of the things of which you are now ***ashamed***? (Romans 6:21 ULT)
The action or behavior in the verses is marked in bold below.
> **Sow righteousness** for yourselves, and **reap the fruit** of covenant faithfulness. (Hosea 10:12a ULT)
>
> According to what I have seen, those who **plow iniquity** and **sow trouble reap it**. (Job 4:8 ULT)
>
> For the people **sow the wind and reap the whirlwind**. (Hosea 8:7a ULT)
>
> … what **fruit then did you have** at that time of the things of which you are now ashamed? (Romans 6:21a ULT)
#### A SEED represents the descendant(s) of a person or group of people
> …the Jews set up and accepted for themselves, and for their ***seed***, and for all those who unite themselves to them (and it will not pass away) to be making these two days according to their writing, and according to their appointed time every year by year. (Esther 9:27 ULT)
> The Jews set up and accepted for themselves, and for their **seed**, and for all those who unite themselves to them (and it will not pass away) to be making these two days according to their writing, and according to their appointed time every year by year. (Esther 9:27 ULT)
#### A TREE represents a person
> He will be like ***a tree planted*** by the streams of water that ***produces its fruit in its season***, whose ***leaves do not wither***; whatever he does will prosper. (Psalm 1:3 ULT)
> I have seen the wicked and terrifying person spread out ***like a green tree in its native soil***. (Psalm 37:35 ULT)
> I am ***like a green olive tree*** in God’s house. (Psalm 52:8 ULT)
> He will be like **a tree planted** by the streams of water that **produces its fruit in its season**, whose **leaves do not wither**; whatever he does will prosper. (Psalm 1:3 ULT)
>
> I have seen the wicked and terrifying person spread out **like a green tree in its native soil**. (Psalm 37:35 ULT)
>
> … I am **like a green olive tree** in God’s house. (Psalm 52:8a ULT)
#### A TREE represents something made of wood (such as a pole or platform)
> Then the matter was sought out and was found out, and the two of them were hung on a ***tree***. (Esther 2:23a ULT)
> Then the matter was sought out and was found out, and the two of them were hung on a **tree**. (Esther 2:23a ULT)
This probably means that they were killed by either by being impaled on a wooden pole or by being hung from a gallows by a rope.

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What are some examples of plants that are used as images in the Bible?
What are some examples of how plants are used as images in the Bible?

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Before beginning a translation of the Bible, the translation committee needs to discuss and agree on the style that they want the translation to have. The following topics should be included in the discussion.
1. **Form** – Should the translation follow the form of the source language so that people who are used to hearing and reading the Bible in the source language will feel more comfortable with it, or should the translation follow the form of the target language, and be easier to understand? We recommend that, in most cases, it is better if the translation follows the form of the target language so that people can understand it better. This means that it will be harder to compare with the source language Bible because it will put things in a different order and use different kinds of expressions that are clear and natural in the target language. But when a Bible is clear and natural, many people will want to read it and hear it, not just the people who have been part of the church for many years.
1. **Form** – Should the translation follow the form of the source language so that people who are used to hearing and reading the Bible in the source language will feel more comfortable with it, or should the translation follow the form of the target language, and be easier to understand? In most cases we recommend that it is better if the translation follows the form of the target language so that people can understand it better. This means that it will be harder to compare with the source language Bible because it will put things in a different order and use different kinds of expressions that are clear and natural in the target language. But when a Bible is clear and natural, many people will want to read it and hear it, not just the people who have been part of the church for many years.
2. **Format** - Is this a written translation to be read from a book, or a translation to be recorded and listened to? If it is a written translation to be used in church, the people may prefer a more formal style. If it is for a recording, the people may prefer a style that is more like people talking informally.
2. **Format** - Is this a written translation to be read from a book, or a translation to be recorded and listened to? If it is a written translation to be used in church, the people may prefer a more formal style. If it is for a recording, the people may prefer a style that is more like people talking informally.
3. **Borrowing** – Should the translation borrow many words from the source language, or should the translators find ways to express these things using target language words? People who have been part of the church for many years may be used to hearing many biblical concepts expressed with source language words. If these words are widely understood outside of the church, then it may be fine to use them in the translation. But if people outside of the church do not understand these words, it would be better to find ways to express these things using target language words.
@ -14,10 +14,10 @@ Before beginning a translation of the Bible, the translation committee needs to
6. **Audience** - The translation committee should discuss who is the audience for this translation. Is it primarily educated people, so they should use a style that uses long sentences and many borrowed words? Is it primarily for young people, or old people, for men or women? Or is it for everyone? In that case, it should use simple language so that everyone can understand it. For more on this topic, see also [Aim](../translate-aim/01.md).
7. **Footnotes** – Should the translation put explanations of difficult things in footnotes? If so, should it use many footnotes, or only for certain topics or especially difficult things? Will people understand what they are and how they work, or will they be confused by them? Instead of footnotes, would it be better to put short explanations in the text of the Bible translation? Or should the translation not include any extra explanations at all? To help in making this decision, consider how well your people understand biblical culture and such things as shepherds, fishing with nets, sailing boats, kings, ancient warfare with chariots, etc., and how much of this might need to be explained.
7. **Footnotes** – Should the translation put explanations of difficult things in footnotes? If so, should it use many footnotes, or only for certain topics or especially difficult things? Will people understand what footnotes are and how they work, or will they be confused by them? Instead of footnotes, would it be better to put short explanations in the text of the Bible translation? Or should the translation not include any extra explanations at all? To help in making this decision, consider how well your people understand biblical culture and such things as shepherds, fishing with nets, sailing boats, kings, ancient warfare with chariots, etc., and how much of this might need to be explained.
8. **Pictures** - Will pictures be used in the Bible translation? If so, how many? Pictures can be very useful for showing things that are unknown in the target culture, such as certain animals or tools or clothing. Using pictures for these things can reduce the need to explain them in footnotes.
8. **Pictures** - Will pictures be used in the Bible translation? If so, how many? Pictures can be very useful for showing things that are unknown in the target culture, such as certain animals or tools or clothing. Using pictures for these things can reduce the need to explain them in footnotes.
9. **Headings** – Should the translation use section headings that summarize what each section is talking about? These can be very helpful for finding different topics. If so, what style of headings should be used? See [Headings](../../checking/headings/01.md) for examples.
9. **Headings** – Should the translation use section headings that summarize what each section is talking about? If so, what style of headings should be used? These can be very helpful for finding different topics. See [Headings](../../checking/headings/01.md) for examples.

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What are the topics that we need to discuss in order to choose a translation style?
What are the topics that we need to discuss in order to choose a translation style?

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@ -28,19 +28,19 @@ It is good if the leaders of these churches and church networks can form a commi
This committee can also choose the pastors and other leaders who will check the translation at the Accuracy and Validation stages.
When it comes time, this committee can also make decisions about the format of the translation and how it will be distributed. They can also encourage the churches to use the translated Scriptures.
When it comes time, committee members can make decisions about the format of the translation and how it will be distributed. They can also encourage the churches to use the translated Scriptures.
This committee should also plan for the maintenance of the translation after it has been translated and distributed. They may want to appoint someone to review the comments and suggestions for improvement that will come from the churches that use the translation. Door43 provides a place for people to access the translation and also to leave these kinds of comments.
This committee should also plan for the maintenance of the translation after it has been translated and distributed. The committee may want to appoint someone to review the comments and suggestions for improvement that will come from the churches that use the translation. Door43 provides a place for people to access the translation and also to leave these kinds of comments.
#### Translators
These are the people who will do the work of making the translation drafts. They will be appointed by the Translation Committee. They need to be people who are native speakers of the target language, who can read the source language (the Gateway Language) very well, and who are respected in the community for their Christian character. For more details about these things, see [Translator Qualifications](../qualifications/01.md).
As well as making the first drafts, these people will form the core of the translation team that will check each other’s work, check the translation with the language community, and perform the [Translation Words](../../checking/important-term-check/01.md) and [Translation Notes](../../checking/trans-note-check/01.md) checks. After each review or checking session, these translators will be responsible to make the changes to the translation that are necessary so that it communicates what it should in the best way. So they will revise the translation many, many times.
Besides making the first drafts, these people will form the core of the translation team that will check each other’s work, check the translation with the language community, and perform the [Translation Words](../../checking/important-term-check/01.md) and [Translation Notes](../../checking/trans-note-check/01.md) checks. After each review or checking session, these translators will be responsible to make the changes to the translation that are necessary so that it communicates what it should in the best way. So they will revise the translation many, many times.
#### Typists
If the translators themselves are not typing the translation draft into a computer or tablet, then someone else on the team needs to do this. This needs to be someone who can type without making a lot of errors. This person also needs to know how to use punctuation marks correctly and consistently. This person may also need to type the revisions and corrections to the translation after each round of checking.
If the translators themselves are not typing the translation draft into a computer or tablet, then someone else on the team must do this. This needs to be someone who can type without making a lot of errors. This person also needs to know how to use punctuation marks correctly and consistently. This person may also need to type the revisions and corrections to the translation after each round of checking.
#### Translation Testers
@ -48,13 +48,13 @@ Some people need to test the translation with members of the language community
#### Accuracy Checkers
The people who are selected to [check the translation for accuracy](../../checking/accuracy-check/01.md) should be people who already know the Bible well in the source language. They should be able to read well in the source language. They will be comparing the translation to the source Bible, to make sure that the translation communicates everything that is in the source Bible. They should be people who are interested in the translation work and who have time to do a good job of checking. It is good if these people can include members of the different church groups who speak the target language and who will use the translation.
The people who are selected to [check the translation for accuracy](../../checking/accuracy-check/01.md) should be people who already know the Bible well in the source language. They should be able to read well in the source language. They will be comparing the translation to the source Bible, to make sure that the translation communicates everything that is in the source Bible. They should be people who are interested in the translation work and who have time to do a good job of checking. It is best for accuracy checkers to include members of the different church groups who speak the target language and who will use the translation.
#### Validation Checkers
Those who do [Validation Checking](../../checking/level3/01.md) should be leaders of groups of churches, or respected very widely in the language area. It is important that these people approve of the translation so that it will be accepted and used in the churches. Since many of these people are very busy, they may choose to appoint others whom they trust to check the translation for them. Also, it may work best to send different books or chapters to different people, and not burden one or two people with checking the whole translation.
Those who do [Validation Checking](../../checking/level3/01.md) should be leaders of groups of churches or people who are very widely respected in the language area. It is important that these people approve of the translation so that it will be accepted and used in the churches. Since many of these people are very busy, they may choose to appoint others whom they trust to check the translation for them. Also, it may work best to send different books or chapters to different people, and not burden one or two people with checking the whole translation.
#### Tech Support
#### Tech Support
These people must have experience (or aptitude) with technology and computers for all things pertaining to file management, as well as training and use of software and hardware.
@ -74,6 +74,6 @@ given team cannot be prescribed in advance. It might even change over time, but
1. We work with the leaders of the church networks to ensure that they understand the skills and functions needed on their translation team, as described in unfoldingWord® Translation Academy.
1. We help them to identify an initial team composition, based on the skills and contextual reality of their team (e.g., size of the team, theological ability, translation experience, language skill, geographic distribution, relationship dynamics, etc.). Their team may be small, with several skills being accomplished by the same person. Or the team may be large (in some cases as many as 25 full-time translators and hundreds of volunteers), with many people providing the same skill in an overlapping and intentionally redundant manner. Regardless of the structure and size of the team that is needed in a given context, the combined roles on any team must provide the combination of skills needed to achieve excellence in Bible translation.
2. We help them to identify an initial team composition based on the skills and contextual reality of their team (e.g., size of the team, theological ability, translation experience, language skill, geographic distribution, relationship dynamics, etc.). Their team may be small, with several skills being provided by the same person. Or the team may be large (in some cases as many as 25 full-time translators and hundreds of volunteers), with many people providing the same skill in an overlapping and intentionally redundant manner. Regardless of the structure and size of the team that is needed in a given context, the combined roles on any team must provide the combination of skills needed to achieve excellence in Bible translation.
1. The team begins working together on an initial translation project (we recommend Open Bible Stories) and observes the effectiveness of their team’s configuration. As needed, adjustments to the team structure are made to improve efficiency and training is provided to increase skill and effectiveness.
3. The team begins working together on an initial translation project (we recommend Open Bible Stories) and observes the effectiveness of their team’s configuration. As needed, adjustments to the team structure are made to improve efficiency, and training is provided to increase skill and effectiveness.

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@ -30,6 +30,10 @@ figs-apostrophe:
recommended: []
dependencies:
- figs-intro
figs-aside:
recommended: []
dependencies:
- figs-intro
figs-declarative:
recommended: []
dependencies:
@ -160,6 +164,10 @@ figs-irony:
- figs-litotes
dependencies:
- figs-intro
figs-litany:
recommended: []
dependencies:
- figs-intro
figs-litotes:
recommended: []
dependencies:

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Normally a speaker refers to himself as “I” and the person he is speaking to as “you”. Sometimes in the Bible a speaker refers to himself or to the person he is speaking to with terms other than “I” or “you”.
Normally a speaker refers to himself as “I” and the person he is speaking to as “you.” Sometimes in the Bible a speaker refers to himself or to the person he is speaking to with terms other than “I” or “you.”
### Description
* **First person** - This is how a speaker normally refers to himself. English uses the pronouns “I” and “we”. (Also: me, my, mine; us, our, ours)
* **Second person** - This is how a speaker normally refers to the person or people he is speaking to. English uses the pronoun “you”. (Also: your, yours)
* **Third person** - This is how a speaker refers to someone else. English uses the pronouns “he”, “she”, “it” and “they”. (Also: him, his, her, hers, its; them, their, theirs) Noun phrases like “the man” or “the woman” are also third person.
* First person - This is how a speaker normally refers to himself. English uses the pronouns “I” and “we.” (Also: me, my, mine; us, our, ours)
* Second person - This is how a speaker normally refers to the person or people he is speaking to. English uses the pronoun “you.” (Also: your, yours)
* Third person - This is how a speaker refers to someone else. English uses the pronouns “he,” “she,” “it,” and “they.” (Also: him, his, her, hers, its; them, their, theirs) Noun phrases like “the man” or “the woman” are also third person.
### Reason this is a Translation Issue
### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Sometimes in the Bible a speaker uses the third person to refer to himself or to the people he is speaking to. Readers might think that the speaker was referring to someone else. They might not understand that he meant “I” or “you”.
Sometimes in the Bible a speaker uses the third person to refer to himself or to the people he is speaking to. Readers might think that the speaker was referring to someone else. They might not understand that he meant “I” or “you.”
### Examples from the Bible
Sometimes people used the third person instead of “I” or “me” to refer to themselves.
> But David said to Saul, “***Your servant*** used to keep ***his*** father’s sheep.” (1 Samuel 17:34 ULT)
David referred to himself in the third person as “your servant” and “his”. He was calling himself Saul’s servant in order to show his humility before Saul.
> But David said to Saul, “**Your servant** used to keep **his** father’s sheep.” (1 Samuel 17:34 ULT)
> Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said,
> “…Do you have an arm like ***God’s***? Can you thunder with a voice like ***him***? (Job 40:6, 9 ULT)
David referred to himself in the third person as “your servant” and used “his.” He was calling himself Saul’s servant in order to show his humility before Saul.
God referred to himself in the third person with the words “God’s” and “him”. He did this to emphasize that he is God, and he is powerful.
> Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said,
> “… Do you have an arm like **God’s**? Can you thunder with a voice like **his**? (Job 40:6, 9 ULT)
God referred to himself in the third person with the words “God’s” and “his.” He did this to emphasize that he is God, and he is powerful.
Sometimes people use the third person instead of “you” or “your” to refer to the person or people they are speaking to.
> Abraham answered and said, “Look what I have done, taking it upon myself to speak to ***my Lord***, even though I am only dust and ashes! (Genesis 18:27 ULT)
> Abraham answered and said, “Look, I have undertaken to speak to my Lord, even though I am only dust and ashes! (Genesis 18:27 ULT)
Abraham was speaking to the Lord, and referred to the Lord as “My Lord” rather than as “you”. He did this to show his humility before God.
Abraham was speaking to the Lord, and referred to the Lord as “My Lord” rather than as “you.” He did this to show his humility before God.
> So also my heavenly Father will do to you, if ***each of you*** does not forgive ***his*** brother from your heart. (Matthew 18:35 ULT)
> So also my heavenly Father will do to you, if **each of you** does not forgive **his** brother from your heart. (Matthew 18:35 ULT)
After saying “each of you,” Jesus used the third person “his” instead of “your”.
After saying “each of you,” Jesus used the third person “his” instead of “your.”
### Translation Strategies
If using the third person to mean “I” or “you” would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are some other options.
1. Use the third person phrase along with the pronoun “I” or “you”.
1. Simply use the first person (“I”) or second person (“you”) instead of the third person.
(1) Use the third person phrase along with the pronoun “I” or “you.” (2) Simply use the first person (“I”) or second person (“you”) instead of the third person.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Use the third person phrase along with the pronoun “I” or “you”.
(1) Use the third person phrase along with the pronoun “I” or “you.”
> **But David said to Saul, “***Your servant*** used to keep ***his*** father’s sheep.”** (1 Samuel 17:34)
>> But David said to Saul, “***I, your servant***, used to keep ***my*** father’s sheep.”
> But David said to Saul, “**Your servant** used to keep **his** father’s sheep.” (1 Samuel 17:34)
>
> > But David said to Saul, “**I, your servant**, used to keep **my** father’s sheep.”
(2) Simply use the first person (“I”) or second person (“you”) instead of the third person.
> **Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, “… Do you have an arm like ***God’s***? Can you thunder with a voice like ***him***?** (Job 40:6, 9 ULT)
>> Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, “… Do you have an arm like ***mine***? Can you thunder with a voice like ***me***?”
> **So also my heavenly Father will do to you, if ***each of you*** does not forgive ***his*** brother from your heart.** (Matthew 18:35 ULT)
>> So also my heavenly Father will do to you, if ***each of you*** does not forgive ***your*** brother from your heart.
> Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, “… Do you have an arm like **God’s**? Can you thunder with a voice like **his**? (Job 40:6, 9 ULT)
>
> > Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, “…Do you have an arm like **mine**? Can you thunder with a voice like **mine**?”
>
> So also my heavenly Father will do to you if **each of you** does not forgive **his** brother from your heart. (Matthew 18:35 ULT)
>
> > So also my heavenly Father will do to you if **each of you** does not forgive **your** brother from your heart.

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Abstract nouns are nouns that refer to attitudes, qualities, events, or situations. These are things that cannot be seen or touched in a physical sense, such as happiness, weight, unity, friendship, health, and reason. This is a translation issue because some languages may express a certain idea with an abstract noun, while others would need a different way to express it.
Abstract nouns are nouns that refer to attitudes, qualities, events, or situations. These are things that cannot be seen or touched in a physical sense, such as happiness, weight, unity, friendship, health, and reason. This is a translation issue because some languages may express a certain idea with an abstract noun, while others would need a different way to express it.
### Description
Remember that nouns are words that refer to a person, place, thing, or idea. **Abstract Nouns** are the nouns that refer to ideas. These can be attitudes, qualities, events, situations, or even relationships among these ideas. These are things that cannot be seen or touched in a physical sense, such as joy, peace, creation, goodness, contentment, justice, truth, freedom, vengeance, slowness, length, weight, and many, many more.
Remember that nouns are words that refer to a person, place, thing, or idea. Abstract nouns are the nouns that refer to ideas. These can be attitudes, qualities, events, situations, or even relationships between those ideas. These are things that cannot be seen or touched in a physical sense, such as joy, peace, creation, goodness, contentment, justice, truth, freedom, vengeance, slowness, length, weight, and many, many more.
Some languages, such as Biblical Greek and English, use abstract nouns a lot. It is a way of giving names to actions or qualities so that people who speak these languages can talk about them as though they were things. For example, in languages that use abstract nouns, people can say, “I believe in the forgiveness of sin.” But some languages do not use abstract nouns very much. In these languages, they may not have the two abstract nouns “forgiveness” and “sin,” but they would express the same meaning in other ways. They would say, for example, “I believe that God is willing to forgive people after they have sinned,” using verb phrases instead of nouns for those ideas.
Some languages, such as Biblical Greek and English, use abstract nouns a lot.They provide a way of giving names to actions or qualities. With names, people who speak these languages can talk about the concepts as though they were things. For example, in languages that use abstract nouns, people can say, “I believe in the forgiveness of sin.”
But some languages do not use abstract nouns very much. In these languages, speakers may not have the two abstract nouns “forgiveness” and “sin,” but they would express the same meaning in other ways. For example, they would express, “I believe that God is willing to forgive people after they have sinned,” by using verb phrases instead of nouns for those ideas.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
The Bible that you translate from may use abstract nouns to express certain ideas. Your language might not use abstract nouns for some of those ideas; instead, it might use phrases to express those ideas. Those phrases will use other kinds of words such as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs to express the meaning of the abstract noun. For example, “What is its ***weight***?” could be expressed as “How much does it ***weigh***?” or “How ***heavy*** is it?”
The Bible that you translate from may use abstract nouns to express certain ideas. Your language might not use abstract nouns for some of those ideas. Instead, it might use phrases to express those ideas. Those phrases will use other kinds of words such as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs to express the meaning of the abstract noun. For example, “What is its **weight**?” could be expressed as “How much does it **weigh**?” or “How **heavy** is it?”
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
> …_from ***childhood*** you have known the sacred writings…_ (2 Timothy 3:15 ULT)
> From **childhood** you have known the sacred writings … (2 Timothy 3:15a ULT)
The abstract noun “childhood” refers to when someone is a child.
The abstract noun “childhood” refers to when someone was a child.
> But ***godliness*** with ***contentment*** is great ***gain***. (1 Timothy 6:6 ULT)
> But **godliness** with **contentment** is great **gain**. (1 Timothy 6:6 ULT)
The abstract nouns “godliness” and “contentment” refer to being godly and content.
The abstract noun “gain” refers to something that benefits or helps someone.
The abstract nouns “godliness” and “contentment” refer to being godly and content. The abstract noun “gain” refers to something that benefits or helps someone.
> Today ***salvation*** has come to this house, because he too is a son of Abraham. (Luke 19:9 ULT)
> Today **salvation** has come to this house, because he too is a son of Abraham. (Luke 19:9 ULT)
The abstract noun “salvation” here refers to being saved.
> The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider ***slowness*** to be (2 Peter 3:9 ULT)
> The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider **slowness** to be (2 Peter 3:9a ULT)
The abstract noun “slowness” refers how slowly something is done.
The abstract noun “slowness” refers to the lack of speed with which something is done.
> He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the ***purposes*** of the heart. (1 Corinthians 4:5 ULT)
> He will both bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the **purposes** of the heart. (1 Corinthians 4:5b ULT)
The abstract noun “purposes” refers to the things that people want to do and the reasons they want to do them.
@ -39,27 +39,31 @@ The abstract noun “purposes” refers to the things that people want to do and
If an abstract noun would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here is another option:
1. Reword the sentence with a phrase that expresses the meaning of the abstract noun. Instead of a noun, the new phrase will use a verb, an adverb, or an adjective to express the idea of the abstract noun.
(1) Reword the sentence with a phrase that expresses the meaning of the abstract noun. Instead of a noun, the new phrase will use a verb, an adverb, or an adjective to express the idea of the abstract noun.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Reword the sentence with a phrase that expresses the meaning of the abstract noun. Instead of a noun, the new phrase will use a verb, an adverb, or an adjective to express the idea of the abstract noun.
> **…from ***childhood*** you have known the sacred writings…** (2 Timothy 3:15 ULT)
>> Ever since ***you were a child*** you have known the sacred writings.
> **But ***godliness*** with ***contentment*** is great ***gain***.** (1 Timothy 6:6 ULT)
>> But ***being godly*** and ***content*** is very ***beneficial***.
>> But we ***benefit*** greatly when we ***are godly*** and ***content***.
>> But we ***benefit*** greatly when we ***honor and obey God*** and when we are ***happy with what we have***.
> **Today ***salvation*** has come to this house, because he too is a son of Abraham.** (Luke 19:9 ULT)
>> Today the people in this house ***have been saved***…
>> Today God ***has saved*** the people in this house…
> **The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider ***slowness*** to be.** (2 Peter 3:9 ULT)
>> The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider ***moving slowly*** to be.
> **He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the ***purposes*** of the heart.** (1 Corinthians 4:5 ULT)
>> He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal ***the things that people want to do and the reasons that they want to do them***.
(1) Reword the sentence with a phrase that expresses the meaning of the abstract noun. Instead of a noun, the new phrase will use a verb, an adverb, or an adjective to express the idea of the abstract noun. Alternative translations are indented below the Scripture example.
> … from **childhood** you have known the sacred writings … (2 Timothy 3:15a ULT)
>
> > Ever since **you were a child** you have known the sacred writings.
>
> But **godliness** with **contentment** is great **gain**. (1 Timothy 6:6 ULT)
>
> > But **being godly** and **content** is very **beneficial**.
> > But we **benefit** greatly when we **are godly** and **content**.
> > But we **benefit** greatly when we **honor and obey God** and when we are **happy with what we have**.
>
> Today **salvation** has come to this house, because he too is a son of Abraham. (Luke 19:9 ULT)
>
> > Today the people in this house **have been saved**…
> > Today God **has saved** the people in this house…
>
> The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider **slowness** to be. (2 Peter 3:9a ULT)
>
> > The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider **moving slowly** to be.
>
> He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the **purposes** of the heart. (1 Corinthians 4:5b ULT)
>
> > He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal **the things that people want to do and the reasons that they want to do them**.

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Some languages use both active and passive sentences. In active sentences, the subject does the action. In passive sentences, the subject is the one that receives the action. Here are some examples with their subjects bolded:
Some languages use both active and passive sentences. In active sentences, the subject does the action. In passive sentences, the subject is the one that receives the action. Here are some examples with their subjects underlined:
* ACTIVE: ***My father*** built the house in 2010.
* PASSIVE: ***The house*** was built in 2010.
* Active: **My father** built the house in 2010.
* Passive: **The house** was built in 2010.
Translators whose languages do not use passive sentences will need to know how they can translate passive sentences that they find in the Bible. Other translators will need to decide when to use a passive sentence and when to use the active form.
@ -10,21 +9,20 @@ Translators whose languages do not use passive sentences will need to know how t
Some languages have both active and passive forms of sentences.
* In the **ACTIVE** form, the subject does the action and is always mentioned.
* In the **PASSIVE** form, the action is done to the subject, and the one who does the action is *not always* mentioned.
* In the active form, the subject does the action and is always mentioned.
* In the passive form, the action is done to the subject, and the one who does the action is not always mentioned.
In the examples of active and passive sentences below, we have underlined the subject.
In the examples of active and passive sentences below, we have bolded the subject.
* **ACTIVE**: ***My father*** built the house in 2010.
* **PASSIVE**: ***The house*** was built by my father in 2010.
* **PASSIVE**: ***The house*** was built in 2010. (This does not tell who did the action.)
* active: **My father** built the house in 2010.
* passive: **The house** was built by my father in 2010.
* passive: **The house** was built in 2010. (This does not tell who did the action.)
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
#### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
All languages use active forms. Some languages use passive forms, and some do not. Some languages use passive forms only for certain purposes, and the passive form is not used for the same purposes in all of the languages that use it.
#### Purposes for the passive
#### Purposes for the Passive
* The speaker is talking about the person or thing the action was done to, not about the person who did the action.
* The speaker does not want to tell who did the action. 
@ -37,15 +35,15 @@ All languages use active forms. Some languages use passive forms, and some do no
### Examples from the Bible
> And their shooters shot at your soldiers from off the wall, and some of the king’s servants ***were killed***, and your servant Uriah the Hittite ***was killed***, too. (2 Samuel 11:24 ULT)
> Then their shooters shot at your soldiers from off the wall, and some of the king’s servants **were killed**, and your servant Uriah the Hittite **was killed** too. (2 Samuel 11:24 ULT)
This means that the enemy’s shooters shot and killed some of the king’s servants, including Uriah. The point is what happened to the king’s servants and Uriah, not who shot them. The purpose of the passive form here is to keep the focus on the king’s servants and Uriah.
> In the morning when the men of the town got up, the altar of Baal ***was broken down***… (Judges 6:28 ULT)
> When the men of the city arose early in the morning, and see, the altar of Baal **was torn down**. (Judges 6:28a ULT)
The men of the town saw what had happened to the altar of Baal, but they did not know who broke it down. The purpose of the passive form here is to communicate this event from the perspective of the men of the town.
> It would be better for him if a millstone ***were put*** around his neck and he ***were thrown*** into the sea (Luke 17:2 ULT)
> It would be better for him if a millstone **were put** around his neck and he **were thrown** into the sea (Luke 17:2a ULT)
This describes a situation in which a person ends up in the sea with a millstone around his neck. The purpose of the passive form here is to keep the focus on what happens to this person. Who does these things to the person is not important.
@ -53,25 +51,25 @@ This describes a situation in which a person ends up in the sea with a millstone
If your language would use a passive form for the same purpose as in the passage that you are translating, then use a passive form. If you decide that it is better to translate without a passive form, here are some strategies that you might consider.
1. Use the same verb in an active sentence and tell who or what did the action. If you do this, try to keep the focus on the person receiving the action.
1. Use the same verb in an active sentence, and do not tell  who or what did the action. Instead, use a generic expression like “they” or ”people” or ”someone.” 
1. Use a different verb.
(1) Use the same verb in an active sentence and tell who or what did the action. If you do this, try to keep the focus on the person receiving the action. (2) Use the same verb in an active sentence, and do not tell  who or what did the action. Instead, use a generic expression like “they” or ”people” or ”someone.”  (3) Use a different verb.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Use the same verb in an active sentence and tell who did the action. If you do this, try to keep the focus on the person receiving the action.
(1) Use the same verb in an active sentence and tell who did the action. If you do this, try to keep the focus on the person receiving the action.
> **A loaf of bread ***was given*** him every day from the street of the bakers.** (Jeremiah 37:21 ULT)
>> ***The king’s servants gave*** Jeremiah a loaf of bread every day from the street of the bakers.
> A loaf of bread **was given** him every day from the street of the bakers. (Jeremiah 37:21b ULT)
>
> > **The king’s servants gave** Jeremiah a loaf of bread every day from the street of the bakers.
(2) Use the same verb in an active sentence, and do not tell  who did the action. Instead, use a generic expression like “they” or  ”people” or  ”someone.” 
> **It would be better for him if a millstone ***were put*** around his neck and he ***were thrown*** into the sea.** (Luke 17:2 ULT)
>> It would be better for him if ***they were to put*** a millstone around his neck and ***throw*** him into the sea.
>> It would be better for him if ***someone were to put*** a heavy stone around his neck and ***throw*** him into the sea.
> It would be better for him if a millstone **were put** around his neck and he **were thrown** into the sea. (Luke 17:2a ULT)
>
> > It would be better for him if **they were to put** a millstone around his neck and **throw** him into the sea.
> > It would be better for him if **someone were to put** a heavy stone around his neck and **throw** him into the sea.
(3) Use a different verb in an active sentence. 
> **A loaf of bread ***was given*** him every day from the street of the bakers.** (Jeremiah 37:21 ULT)
>> He ***received*** a loaf of bread every day from the street of the bakers.
> A loaf of bread **was given** him every day from the street of the bakers. (Jeremiah 37:21 ULT)
>
> > He **received** a loaf of bread every day from the street of the bakers.

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### Definition
An apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker turns his attention away from his listeners and speaks to someone or something that he knows cannot hear him.
### Description
He does this to tell his listeners his message or feelings about that person or thing in a very strong way.
An apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker turns his attention away from his listeners and speaks to someone or something that he knows cannot hear him. He does this to tell his listeners his message or feelings about that person or thing in a very strong way.
### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Many languages do not use apostrophe, and readers could be confused by it. They may wonder who the speaker is talking to, or think that the speaker is crazy to talk to things or people who cannot hear.
### Examples from the Bible
> Mountains of Gilboa, let there not be dew or rain on you (2 Samuel 1:21 ULT)
> Mountains of Gilboa, let there not be dew or rain on you. (2 Samuel 1:21a ULT)
King Saul was killed on Mount Gilboa, and David sang a sad song about it. By telling these mountains that he wanted them to have no dew or rain, he showed how sad he was.
> Jerusalem, Jerusalem, who kills the prophets and stones those sent to you. (Luke 13:34 ULT)
> Jerusalem, Jerusalem, who kills the prophets and stones those sent to you. (Luke 13:34a ULT)
Jesus was expressing his feelings for the people of Jerusalem in front of his disciples and a group of Pharisees. By speaking directly to Jerusalem as though its people could hear him, Jesus showed how deeply he cared about them.
> He cried against the altar by the word of Yahweh: ***“Altar***, ***altar***! This is what Yahweh says, ‘See,…on you they will burn human bones.’“ (1 Kings 13:2 ULT)
> He cried against the altar by the word of Yahweh: "**Altar**, **altar**! This is what Yahweh says, ‘See, … on you they will burn human bones.’“ (1 Kings 13:2 ULT)
The man of God spoke as if the altar could hear him, but he really wanted the king, who was standing there, to hear him.
### Translation Strategies
If apostrophe would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. But if this way of speaking would be confusing to your people, let the speaker continue speaking to the people that are listening to him as he tells ***them*** his message or feelings about the people or thing that cannot hear him. See the example below.
If apostrophe would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. But if this way of speaking would be confusing to your people, let the speaker continue speaking to the people that are listening to him as he tells **them** his message or feelings about the people or thing that cannot hear him. See the example below.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
> **He cried against the altar by the word of Yahweh: ***“Altar***, ***altar***! This is what Yahweh says, ‘See,…on you they will burn human bones.’“** (1 Kings 13:2 ULT)
>> He said this about the altar: “This is what Yahweh says ***about this altar.*** ‘See,…they will burn people’s bones on ***it***.’“
> *****Mountains of Gilboa***, let there not be dew or rain on ***you***** (2 Samuel 1:21 ULT)
>> ***As for these mountains of Gilboa***, let there not be dew or rain on ***them***
> He cried against the altar by the word of Yahweh: "**Altar**, **altar**! This is what Yahweh says, ‘See, … on you they will burn human bones.’“ (1 Kings 13:2 ULT)
>
> > He said this about the altar: “This is what Yahweh says **about this altar.** ‘See, … they will burn people’s bones on **it**.’“
>
> **Mountains of Gilboa**, let there not be dew or rain on **you.** (2 Samuel 1:21a ULT)
>
> > **As for these mountains of Gilboa**, let there not be dew or rain on **them**.

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What is the figure of speech called apostrophe?
What is the figure of speech called an apostrophe?

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### Description
An aside is a figure of speech in which someone who is speaking to a person or group pauses to speak confidentially to himself or someone else about those to whom he had been speaking. The speaker does this to indicate in a strong way his thoughts or feelings about that person or group.
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Many languages do not use asides, and readers could be confused by them. They may wonder why the speaker suddenly starts talking to himself or someone else about the people he is speaking with.
### Examples from the Bible
> All the men of your covenant are sending you away as far as the border. The men of your peace are deceiving you and are prevailing against you. They of your bread will set a trap under you. **There is no understanding in him.** (Obadiah 1:7 ULT)
In the first three lines, Yahweh is telling the people of Edom what will happen to them because they did not help the people of Judah. In the fourth line, Yahweh says something about Edom to himself.
> And I purified them from everything foreign. And I caused the service watches to stand: for the priests and for the Levites, a man in his work; and for the offering of pieces of wood at the appointed times; and for the firstfruits. **Remember me, my God, for good.** (Nehemiah 13:30-31 ULT)
Nehemiah is speaking to the readers of his account and describing some of the many things he did to restore true worship in Judah after the people returned from exile. But he suddenly turns aside and addresses God, asking God to bless him for what he, Nehemiah, has done for those people.
### Translation Strategies
(1) If an aside would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. But if this way of speaking would be confusing, let the speaker continue speaking to the people who are listening to him, but make clear that he is now expressing his thoughts and feelings about them.
(2) If a person speaks a prayer to God as an aside, you can put the prayer in quotation marks to indicate that.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
> All the men of your covenant are sending you away as far as the border. The men of your peace are deceiving you and are prevailing against you. They of your bread will set a trap under you. **There is no understanding in him.** (Obadiah 1:7 ULT)
(1) All the men of your covenant are sending you away as far as the border. The men of your peace are deceiving you and are prevailing against you. They of your bread will set a trap under you. **You do not understand any of this.**
> And I purified them from everything foreign. And I caused the service watches to stand: for the priests and for the Levites, a man in his work; 31 and for the offering of pieces of wood at the appointed times; and for the firstfruits. **Remember me, my God, for good.** (Nehemiah 13:30-31 ULT)
(2) And I cleansed them from everything foreign, and I made assignments for the priests and for the Levites, a man to his own work. And the wood offering at the stated time, and the firstfruits. **“Remember me, my God, for good."**

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What is the figure of speech called an "aside"?

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Aside

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A **complex metaphor** is an *implicit* [metaphor](../figs-metaphor/01.md) that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. This is in contrast to [simple metaphors](../figs-simetaphor/01.md), which use only a single Image and a single Idea. Complex metaphors are similar to [extended metaphors](../figs-exmetaphor/01.md); the difference is that extended metaphors are explicitly stated in the text, but complex metaphors are not. For this reason, it can be extremely difficult to identify complex metaphors in the Bible.
A complex metaphor is an implicit [metaphor](../figs-metaphor/01.md) that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. This is in contrast to [simple metaphors](../figs-simetaphor/01.md), which use only a single Image and a single Idea. Complex metaphors are similar to [extended metaphors](../figs-exmetaphor/01.md); the difference is that extended metaphors are explicitly stated in the text, but complex metaphors are not. For this reason, it can be extremely difficult to identify complex metaphors in the Bible.
### Explanation of a Complex Metaphor
When using a metaphor, a writer/speaker uses a physical **Image** in order to express an abstract **Idea** about some immediate **Topic**, with at least one point of comparison between the Topic and the Image. In simple metaphors, usually the Topic and the Image are expressed, and the Idea is implied from the context. In extended metaphors, the writer or speaker explicitly states the topic, and then describes multiple images and communicates multiple ideas. A complex metaphor is different from both of these. In a complex metaphor, a writer/speaker uses multiple **Images** to express multiple **Ideas** about a **Topic**, but he does not explicitly say how the images and ideas are metaphorically related to one another. The reader/listener must think very carefully about what the writer/speaker is saying in order to figure out the underlying relationship between the images and the ideas. **One can say more precisely that a complex metaphor operates ***in the mind of the writer/speaker*** rather than ***in the text itself***.**
When using a metaphor, a writer/speaker uses a physical **Image** in order to express an abstract **Idea** about some immediate **Topic**, with at least one point of comparison between the Topic and the Image.
For example, the metaphor FORGIVENESS IS CLEANSING is a very common complex metaphor in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. Consider the following verses from Psalm 51.
In simple metaphors, usually the Topic and the Image are expressed, and the Idea is implied from the context. In extended metaphors, the writer or speaker explicitly states the topic, and then describes multiple images and communicates multiple ideas.
> Have mercy on me, God, because of your covenant faithfulness; for the sake of the multitude of your merciful actions, ***blot out*** my transgressions. ***Wash me thoroughly*** from my iniquity and ***cleanse me*** from my sin. For I know my transgressions, and my sin is always before me. Against you, you only, I have sinned and done what is evil in your sight; you are right when you speak; you are correct when you judge. See, I was born in iniquity; as soon as my mother conceived me, I was in sin. See, you desire trustworthiness in my inner self; and you teach me wisdom in the secret place within. ***Purify me*** with hyssop, and ***I will be clean***; ***wash me***, and I will be whiter than snow. Make me hear joy and gladness so that the bones that you have broken may rejoice. Hide your face from my sins and ***blot out*** all my iniquities. Create in me ***a clean heart***, God, and renew a right spirit within me. (Psa 51:1-10 ULT)
A complex metaphor is different from both of these. In a complex metaphor, a writer/speaker uses multiple **Images** to express multiple **Ideas** about a **Topic**, but he does not explicitly say how the images and ideas are metaphorically related to one another. The reader/listener must think very carefully about what the writer/speaker is saying in order to figure out the underlying relationship between the images and the ideas.
Here the psalmist is praying to God in earnest repentance for his sin (the **Topic**). This psalm includes multiple terms for sin ("transgressions", "iniquity", "evil") as well as multiple images related to the event of cleansing ("wash", "purify", "blot out"). If you were to read the psalm literally, you might think that the psalmist is asking God to give him a bath! But the psalmist is not asking for that, because washing will not solve his problem. He knows that he is guilty of sin and that he deserves for God to judge him for his wrongdoing. Rather, the psalmist is asking God to forgive him for what he has done wrong, using words that mean "washing" or "cleansing". In other words, in his mind the psalmist is imagining the action of forgiving as if it were washing. The psalmist is using the **Image** of CLEANSING to represent the **Idea** of FORGIVENESS. We express this as the complex metaphor FORGIVENESS IS CLEANSING, but this metaphor is nowhere stated in the text itself. (This same complex metaphor is also found in Isa 1:2-31, Eph 5:25-27, 1 John 1:7-9, and others.)
One can say more precisely that a complex metaphor operates *in the mind of the writer/speaker* rather than **in the text itself**.
The apostle Paul uses an even more difficult complex metaphor in Ephesians 6:10-20:
For example, the metaphor FORGIVENESS IS CLEANSING is a very common complex metaphor in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. Consider the following verses from Psalm 51.
> Finally, be strong in the Lord and in the power of his might. ***Put on the whole armor of God, so that you may be able to stand against the scheming plans of the devil***. For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the world-controllers of this darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places. Therefore put on the whole armor of God, so that you may be able to withstand in the evil day, and, having done everything, to stand. 14 Stand, therefore, after ***having fastened up your robe around your waist with the truth*** and ***having put on the breastplate of righteousness***, and ***having shod your feet with the readiness of the gospel of peace***. 16 In all circumstances ***take up the shield of faith***, by which you will be able to put out all the flaming arrows of the evil one. ***Take the helmet of salvation*** and ***the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God***. With every prayer and request, pray at all times in the Spirit. To this end, be watchful with all perseverance and requests for all the saints, and for me, that a message may be given to me when I open my mouth, to make known with boldness the mystery of the gospel (for which I am an ambassador in chains), so that in it I may speak boldly, as it is appropriate for me to speak. (Eph 6:10-20 ULT)
> Have mercy on me, God, because of your covenant faithfulness; for the sake of the multitude of your merciful actions, **blot out** my transgressions. **Wash me thoroughly** from my iniquity and **cleanse me** from my sin. For I know my transgressions, and my sin is always before me. Against you, you only, I have sinned and done what is evil in your sight; you are right when you speak; you are correct when you judge. See, I was born in iniquity; as soon as my mother conceived me, I was in sin. See, you desire trustworthiness in my inner self; and you teach me wisdom in the secret place within. **Purify me** with hyssop, and **I will be clean**; **wash me**, and I will be whiter than snow. Make me hear joy and gladness so that the bones that you have broken may rejoice. Hide your face from my sins and **blot out** all my iniquities. Create in me **a clean heart**, God, and renew a right spirit within me. (Psa 51:1-10 ULT)
In this paragraph, the apostle Paul describes how a Christian should prepare to resist temptation (the **Topic**) by comparing a series of abstract ideas to pieces of armor worn by a soldier. The term “full armor of God” is not a combination of several simple metaphors. The soldier's belt does not represent truth, the helmet does not represent salvation, the shield does not represent faith, and so on. Rather, the apostle Paul was using the central **Image** of a soldier putting on his armor (that is, “GETTING DRESSED” for battle) to refer to the central abstract **Idea** of a Christian preparing himself (that is, "PREPARATION") to resist temptation. The unstated complex metaphor PREPARATION IS GETTING DRESSED underlies the entire description as a whole.
Here the psalmist is praying to God in earnest repentance for his sin (the **Topic**). This psalm includes multiple terms for sin (“transgressions,” “iniquity,” “evil”) as well as multiple images related to the event of cleansing (“wash,” “purify,” “blot out”). If you were to read the psalm literally, you might think that the psalmist is asking God to give him a bath! But the psalmist is not asking for that because washing will not solve his problem. He knows that he is guilty of sin and that he deserves that God would judge him for his wrongdoing. Rather, the psalmist is asking God to forgive him for what he has done wrong, using words that mean “washing” or “cleansing.” In other words, in his mind the psalmist is imagining the action of forgiving as if it were washing. The psalmist is using the **Image** of CLEANSING to represent the **Idea** of FORGIVENESS. We express this as the complex metaphor FORGIVENESS IS CLEANSING, but this metaphor is nowhere stated in the text itself. (This same complex metaphor is also found in Isa 1:2-31, Eph 5:25-27, 1 John 1:7-9, and others.)
The apostle Paul uses an even more difficult complex metaphor in Ephesians 6:10-20:
> Finally, be strong in the Lord and in the force of his strength. **Put on the whole armor of God, to enable you to stand against the scheming of the devil.** For our struggle is not against blood and flesh, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the world-controllers of this darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places. Therefore, put on the whole armor of God, so that you may be able to withstand in the evil day, and, having done everything, to stand. 14 Stand, therefore, **having fastened up your robe around your waist with the truth** and **having put on the breastplate of righteousness**, and **having shod your feet with the readiness of the gospel of peace**. 16 In everything **take up the shield of the faith**, by which you will be able to extinguish all the flaming arrows of the evil one. **Take the helmet of salvation and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God**. With every prayer and request, pray at all times in the Spirit. To this end, be watchful with all perseverance and requests for all the saints, 19 and for me, so that a message might be given to me when I open my mouth, to make known with boldness the mystery of the gospel 20 (for which I am an ambassador in chains), so that in it I may speak boldly, as it is necessary for me to speak. (Eph 6:10-20 ULT)
In this paragraph, the apostle Paul describes how a Christian should prepare to resist temptation (the **Topic**) by comparing a series of abstract ideas to pieces of armor worn by a soldier. The term “full armor of God” is not a combination of several simple metaphors. The soldier’s belt does not represent truth, the helmet does not represent salvation, the shield does not represent faith, and so on. Rather, the apostle Paul was using the central **Image** of a soldier putting on his armor (that is, “GETTING DRESSED” for battle) to refer to the central abstract **Idea** of a Christian preparing himself (that is, “PREPARATION”) to resist temptation. The unstated complex metaphor PREPARATION IS GETTING DRESSED underlies the entire description as a whole.
### Other Examples from the Bible
The Bible often speaks of God as doing things that people do, such as speaking, seeing, walking, etc. But God is not a human being. [Although Jesus IS both God and a human being, of course.] So when the Old Testament says that God speaks, we should not think that he has vocal chords that vibrate. And when the Bible says something about God doing something with his hand, we should not think that God has a physical hand made of flesh and bones. Rather, the writer is thinking about God as a person, using the physical **Image** of a human being to represent the abstract **Idea** "God." The writer is using the complex metaphor GOD IS A HUMAN, even though he does not explicitly say so in the text.
> If we hear ***the voice of Yahweh our God*** any longer, we will die. (Deuteronomy 5:25 ULT)
> I have been strengthened by ***the hand of Yahweh my God*** (Ezra 7:28 ULT)
> You drove out the nations with ***your hand***, but you planted our people; you afflicted the peoples, but you spread our people out in the land. For they did not obtain the land for their possession by their own sword, neither did their own arm save them; but ***your right hand***, ***your arm***, and the light of ***your face***, because you were favorable to them. (Psa 44:2-3 ULT)
The Bible often speaks of God as doing things that people do, such as speaking, seeing, walking, etc. But God is not a human being, although Jesus is both God and a human being, of course. So when the Old Testament says that God speaks, we should not think that he has vocal chords that vibrate. And when the Bible says something about God doing something with his hand, we should not think that God has a physical hand made of flesh and bones. Rather, the writer is thinking about God as a person, using the physical **Image** of a human being to represent the abstract **Idea** “God.” The writer is using the complex metaphor GOD IS A HUMAN, even though he does not explicitly say so in the text.
> If we hear **the voice of Yahweh our God** any longer, we will die. (Deuteronomy 5:25b ULT)
>
> I was strengthened as **the hand of Yahweh** my God was upon me. (Ezra 7:28b ULT)
>
> You drove out the nations with **your hand**, but you planted our people; you afflicted the peoples, but you spread our people out in the land. For they did not obtain the land for their possession by their own sword, neither did their own arm save them; but **your right hand**, **your arm**, and the light of **your face**, because you were favorable to them. (Psa 44:2-3 ULT)
### Translation Strategies
@ -35,4 +38,4 @@ The Bible often speaks of God as doing things that people do, such as speaking,
* For strategies regarding translating metaphors, see [Metaphor](../figs-metaphor/01.md).
* To learn more about biblical imagery, complex metaphors, and cultural models in the Bible, see [Biblical Imagery](../biblicalimageryta/01.md) and/or [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) and/or [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md).
* To learn more about biblical imagery, complex metaphors, and cultural models in the Bible, see [Biblical Imagery](../biblicalimageryta/01.md) and/or [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) and/or [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md).

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### Description
Normally statements are used to give information. But sometimes they are used in the Bible for other functions.
Normally statements are used to give information. Sometimes they are used in the Bible for other functions.
### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Some languages would not use a statement for some of the functions that statements are used for in the Bible.
@ -11,61 +11,62 @@ Some languages would not use a statement for some of the functions that statemen
Statements are normally used to give **information**. All of the sentences in John 1:6-8 below are statements, and their function is to give information.
> There was a man who was sent from God, whose name was John. He came as a witness to testify about the light, that all might believe through him. John was not the light, but came that he might testify about the light. (John 1:6-8 ULT)
> There was a man who was sent from God, whose name was John. He came as a witness in order to testify about the light, that all might believe through him. John was not the light, but came that he might testify about the light. (John 1:6-8 ULT)
A statement can also be used as a **command** to tell someone what to do. In the examples below, the high priest used statements with the verb “will” to tell people what to do.
> He commanded them, saying, “This is what you **must** do. A third of you who come on the Sabbath _will_ keep watch over the king’s house, and a third _will_ be at the Sur Gate, and a third at the gate behind the guardhouse.” (2 Kings 11:5 ULT)
> He commanded them, saying, “This is what you **must** do. A third of you who come on the Sabbath **will** keep watch over the king’s house, and a third **will** be at the Sur Gate, and a third at the gate behind the guardhouse.” (2 Kings 11:5 ULT)
A statement can also be used to give **instructions**. The speaker below was not just telling Joseph about something Joseph would do in the future; he was telling Joseph what he needed to do.
> She will give birth to a son, and _you will call his name Jesus_, for he will save his people from their sins. (Matthew 1:21 ULT)
> She will give birth to a son, and **you will call his name Jesus**, for he will save his people from their sins. (Matthew 1:21 ULT)
A statement can also be used to make a **request**. The man with leprosy was not just saying what Jesus was able to do. He was also asking Jesus to heal him.
> Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, “Lord, if you are willing, _you can make me clean_.” (Matthew 8:2 ULT)
> Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, “Lord, if you are willing, **you can make me clean**.” (Matthew 8:2 ULT)
A statement can also be used to **perform** something. By telling Adam that the ground was cursed because of him, God actually cursed it.
> …cursed is the ground because of you; (Genesis 3:17 ULT)
> … **cursed is the ground** because of you; (Genesis 3:17b ULT)
By telling a man that his sins were forgiven, Jesus forgave the man’s sins.
By telling a man that his sins were forgiven, **Jesus forgave** the man’s sins.
> Seeing their faith, Jesus said to the paralyzed man, “Son, _your sins are forgiven_.” (Luke 2:5 ULT)
> When Jesus saw their faith, he said to the paralyzed man, “**Son, your sins are forgiven**.” (Mark 2:5 ULT)
### Translation Strategies
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, _use a sentence type_ that would express that function.
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, _add a sentence type_ that would express that function.
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, _use a verb form_ that would express that function.
(1) If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, **use a sentence type** that would express that function.
(2) If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, **add a sentence type** that would express that function.
(3) If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, **use a verb form** that would express that function.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, use a sentence type that would express that function.
> **She will give birth to a son, and ***you will call his name Jesus***, for he will save his people from their sins.** (Matthew 1:21 ULT)
> She will give birth to a son, and **you will call his name Jesus**, for he will save his people from their sins. (Matthew 1:21 ULT)
The phrase “you will call his name Jesus” is an instruction. It can be translated using the sentence type of a normal instruction.
>> She will give birth to a son. ***Name him Jesus***, because he will save his people from their sins.
>> She will give birth to a son. **Name him Jesus**, because he will save his people from their sins.
(2) If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, add a sentence type that would express that function.
> **Lord, if you are willing, ***you can make me clean***.** (Matthew 8:2 ULT)
> Lord, **please heal me**, because I know you are able to heal me if you are willing to. (Matthew 8:2 ULT)
The function of “you can make me clean” is to make a request. In addition to the statement, a request can be added.
The function of “I know you can” is to make a request. In addition to the statement, a request can be added.
>> Lord, if you are willing, ***you can make me clean. Please do so.***
>> Lord, if you are willing, ***please make me clean. I know you can do so.***
> > Lord, **I know you can heal me**,. If you are willing, please do so**.**
> >
> > Lord, if you are willing, please heal me**.** **I know you can do so****.**
(3) If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, use a verb form that would express that function.
> **She will give birth to a son, and ***you will call his name Jesus***, for he will save his people from their sins.** (Matthew 1:21 ULT)
>> She will give birth to a son, and ***you must call his name Jesus***, for he will save his people from their sins.
> **Son, your sins are forgiven.** (Luke 2:5 ULT)
>> Son, I forgive your sins.
>> Son, God has forgiven your sins.
> She will give birth to a son, and **you will call his name Jesus**, for he will save his people from their sins. (Matthew 1:21 ULT)
>
> > She will give birth to a son, and **you must call his name Jesus**, for he will save his people from their sins.
>
> Son, your sins are forgiven. (Mark 2:5 ULT)
>
> > Son, I forgive your sins.
> >
> > Son, God has forgiven your sins.

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### Description
In some languages, phrases that modify a noun can be used with the noun for two different purposes. They can either (1) distinguish the noun from other similar items, or (2) they can give more information about the noun. That information could be new to the reader, or a reminder about something the reader might already know. Other languages use modifying phrases with a noun only for distinguishing the noun from other similar things. When people who speak these languages hear a modifying phrase with a noun, they assume that its function is to distinguish one item from another similar item.
In some languages, phrases that modify a noun can be used with the noun for two different purposes. They can either (1) distinguish the noun from other similar items, or (2) they can give more information about the noun. That information could be new to the reader, or a reminder about something the reader might already know. Other languages use modifying phrases with a noun only for distinguishing the noun from other similar things. When people who speak these languages hear a modifying phrase along with a noun, they assume that its function is to distinguish one item from another similar item.
Some languages use a comma to mark the difference between (1) making a distinction between similar items and (2) giving more information about an item. Without the comma, the sentence below communicates that it is making a distinction:
* Mary gave some of the food to ***her sister who was very thankful***.
* If her sister was usually thankful, the phrase “who was thankful” could **distinguish this sister** of Mary’s from another sister who was not usually thankful.
* Mary gave some of the food to **her sister who was very thankful**.
* If her sister was usually thankful, the phrase “who was thankful” could distinguish this sister of Mary’s from another sister who was not usually thankful.
With the comma, the sentence is giving more information:
* Mary gave some of the food to ***her sister, who was very thankful***.
* This same phrase can be used give us more information about Mary’s sister. It tells us about **how Mary’s sister responded** when Mary gave her the food. In this case it does not distinguish one sister from another sister.
* Mary gave some of the food to **her sister, who was very thankful**.
* This same phrase can be used give us more information about Mary’s sister. It tells us about how Mary’s sister responded when Mary gave her the food. In this case it does not distinguish one sister from another sister.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
#### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
* Many source languages of the Bible use phrases that modify a noun **both** for distinguishing the noun from another similar item **and also** for giving more information about the noun. You (the translator) must be careful to understand which meaning the author intended in each case.
* Some languages use phrases that modify a noun **only** for distinguishing the noun from another similar item. When translating a phrase that is used for giving more information, translators who speak these languages will need to separate the phrase from the noun. Otherwise, people who read it or hear it will think that the phrase is meant to distinguish the noun from other similar items.
* Many source languages of the Bible use phrases that modify a noun both for distinguishing the noun from another similar item and also for giving more information about the noun. You (the translator) must be careful to understand which meaning the author intended in each case.
* Some languages use phrases that modify a noun only for distinguishing the noun from another similar item. When translating a phrase that is used for giving more information, translators who speak these languages will need to separate the phrase from the noun. Otherwise, people who read it or hear it will think that the phrase is meant to distinguish the noun from other similar items.
### Examples from the Bible
**Examples of words and phrases that are used to distinguish one item from other possible items**: These usually do not cause any problem in translation.
#### Examples of words and phrases that are used to distinguish one item from other possible items:
> … The curtain is to separate ***the holy place*** from ***the most holy place***. (Exodus 26:33 ULT)
(These usually do not cause any problem in translation.)
> The curtain is to separate **the holy place** from **the most holy place**. (Exodus 26:33b ULT)
The words “holy” and “most holy” distinguish two different places from each other and from any other place.
> A foolish son is a grief to his father, and bitterness to ***the woman who bore him***. (Proverbs 17:25 ULT)
> A foolish son is a grief to his father, and bitterness to **the woman who bore him**. (Proverbs 17:25 ULT)
The phrase “who bore him” distinguishes which woman the son is bitterness to. He is not bitterness to all women, but to his mother.
**Examples of words and phrases that are used to give added information or a reminder about an item**: These are a translation issue for languages that do not use these.
#### Examples of words and phrases that are used to give added information or a reminder about an item:
> …for ***your righteous judgments*** are good. (Psalm 119:39 ULT)
(These are a translation issue for languages that do not use these.)
The word “righteous” simply reminds us that God’s judgments are righteous. It does not distinguish his righteous judgements from his unrighteous judgements, because all of his judgments are righteous.
> … for **your righteous judgments** are good. (Psalm 119:39b ULT)
> Can Sarah, ***who is ninety years old***, bear a son? (Genesis 17:17-18 ULT)
The word “righteous” simply reminds us that God’s judgments are righteous. It does not distinguish his righteous judgments from his unrighteous judgments, because all of his judgments are righteous.
The phrase “who is ninety years old” is the reason that Abraham did not think that Sarah could bear a son. He was not distinguishing one woman named Sarah from another woman named Sarah who was a different age, and he was not telling anyone something new about her age. He simply did not think that a woman who was that old could bear a child.
> How can Sarah, **who is 90 years old**, bear a son? (Genesis 17:17b ULT)
> I will wipe away mankind ***whom I have created*** from the surface of the earth. (Genesis 6:7 ULT)
The phrase “who is 90 years old” is the reason that Abraham did not think that Sarah could bear a son. He was not distinguishing one woman named Sarah from another woman named Sarah who was a different age, and he was not telling anyone something new about her age. He simply did not think that a woman who was that old could bear a child.
> I will wipe away mankind **whom I have created** from the surface of the earth. (Genesis 6:7 ULT)
The phrase “whom I have created” is a reminder of the relationship between God and mankind. It is the reason God had the right to wipe away mankind. There is not another mankind that God did not create.
@ -48,28 +51,34 @@ The phrase “whom I have created” is a reminder of the relationship between G
If readers would understand the purpose of a phrase with a noun, then consider keeping the phrase and the noun together. For languages that use words or phrases with a noun only to distinguish one item from another, here are some strategies for translating phrases that are used to inform or remind.
1. Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose.
1. Use one of your language’s ways for expressing that this is just added information. It may be by adding a small word, or by changing the way the voice sounds. Sometimes changes in the voice can be shown with punctuation marks, such as parentheses or commas.
(1) Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose. (2) Use one of your language’s ways for expressing that this is just added information. It may be by adding a small word, or by changing the way the voice sounds. Sometimes changes in the voice can be shown with punctuation marks, such as parentheses or commas.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose.
> **I hate those who serve ***worthless*** idols** (Psalm 31:6 ULT) - By saying “worthless idols,” David was commenting about all idols and giving his reason for hating those who serve them. He was not distinguishing worthless idols from valuable idols.
>> ***Because*** idols are worthless, I hate those who serve them.
> **…for your ***righteous*** judgments are good.** (Psalm 119:39 ULT)
>> …for your judgments are good ***because*** they are righteous.
> **Can Sarah, ***who is ninety years old***, bear a son?** (Genesis 17:17-18 ULT) - The phrase “who is ninety years old” is a reminder of Sarah’s age. It tells why Abraham was asking the question. He did not expect that a woman who was that old could bear a child.
>> Can Sarah bear a son ***even when*** she is ninety years old?
> **I will call on Yahweh, ***who is worthy to be praised***** (2 Samuel 22:4 ULT) - There is only one Yahweh. The phrase “who is worthy to be praised” gives a reason for calling on Yahweh.
>> I will call on Yahweh, ***because*** he is worthy to be praised
> I hate those who serve **worthless** idols (Psalm 31:6 ULT)
> By saying “worthless idols,” David was commenting about all idols and giving his reason for hating those who serve them. He was not distinguishing worthless idols from valuable idols.
>
> > **Because** **idols are worthless**, I hate those who serve them.
>
> … for your **righteous** judgments are good. (Psalm 119:39b ULT)
>
> > … for your judgments are good **because they are righteous**.
>
> Can Sarah, **who is 90 years old**, bear a son? (Genesis 17:17b ULT)
> The phrase “who is 90 years old” is a reminder of Sarah’s age. It tells why Abraham was asking the question. He did not expect that a woman who was that old could bear a child.
>
> > Can Sarah bear a son **even when** **she is 90 years old**?
>
> I will call on Yahweh, **who is worthy to be praised** (2 Samuel 22:4a ULT)
> There is only one Yahweh. The phrase “who is worthy to be praised” gives a reason for calling on Yahweh.
>
> > I will call on Yahweh, because **he is worthy to be praised**
(2) Use one of your language’s ways for expressing that this is just added information.
> **You are my Son, ***whom I love***. I am pleased with you.** (Luke 3:22 ULT)
>> You are my Son. ***I love you*** and I am pleased with you.
>> ***Receiving my love***, you are my Son. I am pleased with you.
> You are my Son, **whom I love**. I am pleased with you. (Luke 3:22 ULT)
>
> > You are my Son. **I love you** and I am pleased with you.
> > **Receiving my love**, you are my Son. I am pleased with you.

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Distinguishing versus Informing or Reminding
Distinguishing Versus Informing or Reminding

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A double negative occurs when a clause has two words that each express the meaning of “not." Double negatives mean very different things in different languages. To translate sentences that have double negatives accurately and clearly, you need to know what a double negative means in the Bible and how to express this idea in your language.
A double negative occurs when a clause has two words that each express the meaning of “not.” Double negatives mean very different things in different languages. To translate sentences that have double negatives accurately and clearly, you need to know what a double negative means in the Bible and how to express this idea in your language.
### Description
Negative words are words that have in them the meaning “not.” Examples in English are “no,” “not,” “none,” “no one,” “nothing,” “nowhere,” “never,” “nor,” “neither,” and “without.” Also, some words have prefixes or suffixes that mean “not” such as the underlined parts of these words: “***un*** happy,” “***im*** possible,” and “use***less***.” Some other kinds of words also have a negative meaning, such as "lack" or "reject," or even "fight" or "evil."
Negative words are words that have in them the meaning “not.” Examples in English are “no,” “not,” “none,” “no one,” “nothing,” “nowhere,” “never,” “nor,” “neither,” and “without.” Also, some words have prefixes or suffixes that mean “not,” such as the bolded parts of these words: “**un**happy,” “**im**possible,” and “use**less**.” Some other kinds of words also have a negative meaning, such as “lack” or “reject,” or even “fight” or “evil.”
A double negative occurs when a clause has two words that each have a negative meaning.
> It is ***not*** that we do ***not*** have authority… (2 Thessalonians 3:9 ULT)
> And this better confidence did ***not*** happen ***without*** the taking of an oath,… (Hebrews 7:20 ULT.)
> Be sure of this—wicked people will ***not*** go ***un***punished (Proverbs 11:21 ULT)
> We did this **not** because we have **no** authority … (2 Thessalonians 3:9a ULT)
>
> And this was not done without an oath! (Hebrews 7:20a ULT)
>
> Be sure of this—the wicked person will **not** go **un**punished. (Proverbs 11:21a ULT)
#### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Double negatives mean very different things in different languages.
* In some languages, such as Spanish, a double negative emphasizes the negative. The following Spanish sentence *No ví a nadie* is literally, “I did not see no one”. It has both the word ‘no’ next to the verb and ‘nadie,’ which means “no one”. The two negatives are seen as in agreement with each other, and the sentence means, “I did not see anyone”.
* In some languages, a second negative cancels the first one, creating a positive sentence. So, “He is not unintelligent” means “He is intelligent”.
* In some languages the double negative creates a positive sentence, but it is a weak statement. So, “He is not unintelligent” means, “He is somewhat intelligent”.
* In some languages, such as the languages of the Bible, the double negative can create a positive sentence, and often strengthens the statement. So, “He is not unintelligent” can mean “He is intelligent” or “He is very intelligent”.
* In some languages, such as Spanish, a double negative emphasizes the negative. The Spanish sentence, "No vi a nadie," literally says “I did not see no one.” It has both the word ‘no’ next to the verb and ‘nadie,’ which means “no one.” The two negatives are seen as in agreement with each other, and the sentence means, “I did not see anyone.”
* In some languages, a second negative cancels the first one, creating a positive sentence. So, “He is not unintelligent” means “He is intelligent.”
* In some languages the double negative creates a positive sentence, but it is a weak statement. So, “He is not unintelligent” means, “He is somewhat intelligent.”
* In some languages, such as the languages of the Bible, the double negative can create a positive sentence, and often strengthens the statement. So, “He is not unintelligent” can mean “He is intelligent” or “He is very intelligent.”
To translate sentences with double negatives accurately and clearly in your language, you need to know both what a double negative means in the Bible and how to express the same idea in your language.
To translate sentences with double negatives accurately and clearly in your language, you need to know what a double negative means in the Bible and how to express the same idea in your language.
### Examples from the Bible
> …in order ***not*** to be ***unfruitful***. (Titus 3:14 ULT)
> … in order **not** to be **unfruitful**. (Titus 3:14b ULT)
This means “so that they will be fruitful”.
> All things were made through him and ***without*** him there was ***not*** one thing made that has been made. (John 1:3 ULT)
This means “so that they will be fruitful.”
> All things were made through him and **without** him there was **not** one thing made that has been made. (John 1:3 ULT)
By using a double negative, John emphasized that the Son of God created absolutely everything. The double negative makes a stronger statement than the simple positive.
### Translation Strategies
If double negatives are natural and are used to express the positive in your language, consider using them. Otherwise, you could consider these strategies:
If double negatives are natural and are used to express the positive in your language, consider using them. Otherwise, you could consider these strategies:
1. If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is simply to make a positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives so that it is positive.
1. If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is to make a strong positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives and put in a strengthening word or phrase such as “very” or “surely” or "absolutely."
(1) If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is simply to make a positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives so that it is positive.
(2) If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is to make a strong positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives and put in a strengthening word or phrase such as “very” or “surely” or “absolutely.”
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is simply to make a positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives so that it is positive.
> **For we do ***not*** have a high priest who can***not*** feel sympathy for our weaknesses.** (Hebrews 4:15 ULT)
> For we do **not** have a high priest who can**not** feel sympathy for our weaknesses. (Hebrews 4:15a ULT)
>> “For we have a high priest who can feel sympathy for our weaknesses.”
> **…in order ***not*** to be ***unfruitful***. (Titus 3:14 ULT)
>> “…so that they may be fruitful.”
(2) If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is to make a strong positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives and put in a strengthening word or phrase such as “very” or “surely” or "absolutely."
> **Be sure of this—wicked people will ***not*** go ***un*** punished…** (Proverbs 11:21 ULT)
>> “Be sure of this—wicked people will ***certainly*** be punished…”
> **All things were made through him and ***without*** him there was ***not*** one thing made that has been made.** (John 1:3 ULT)
>> “All things were made through him. He made ***absolutely*** everything that has been made.”
> … in order **not** to be **unfruitful**. (Titus 3:14b ULT)
>> “… so that they may be fruitful.”
(2) If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is to make a strong positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives and put in a strengthening word or phrase such as “very” or “surely” or “absolutely.”
> Be sure of this—the wicked person will **not** go **un**punished. (Proverbs 11:21a ULT)
>
> > “Be sure of this—wicked people will **certainly** be punished.”
>
> All things were made through him and **without** him there was **not** one thing made that has been made. (John 1:3 ULT)
>
> > “All things were made through him. He made **absolutely** everything that has been made.”

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### Description
We are using the word “doublet” to refer to two words or phrases that are used together and either mean the same thing or mean very close to the same thing. Often they are joined with the word “and.” Unlike [Hendiadys](../figs-hendiadys/01.md), in which one of the words modifies the other, in a doublet the two words or phrases are equal and are used to emphasize or intensify the one idea that is expressed by the two words or phrases.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
In some languages people do not use doublets. Or they may use doublets, but only in certain situations, so a doublet might not make sense in their language in some verses. People might think that the verse is describing two ideas or actions, when it is only describing one. In this case, translators may need to find some other way to express the meaning expressed by the doublet.
### Examples from the Bible
> King David was ***old*** and ***advanced in years***. (1 Kings 1:1 ULT)
> He has one people **scattered** and **dispersed** among the peoples (Esther 3:8 ULT)
The underlined words mean the same thing. Together they mean that he was “very old.”
The bolded words mean the same thing. Together they mean the people were spread out.
> …he attacked two men ***more righteous*** and ***better*** than himself… (1 Kings 2:32 ULT)
> He attacked two men **more righteous** and **better** than himself. 1 Kings 2:32b ULT)
This means that they were “much more righteous” than he was.
> You have decided to prepare ***false*** and ***deceptive*** words (Daniel 2:9 ULT)
> You have decided to prepare **false** and **deceptive** words. (Daniel 2:9b ULT)
This means that they had decided to lie, which is another way of saying that they intended to deceive people.
> …as of a lamb ***without blemish*** and ***without spot***. (1 Peter 1:19 ULT)
> … like of a lamb **without blemish** and **without spot**. (1 Peter 1:19b ULT)
This means that he was like a lamb that did not have any defect--not even one.
@ -30,24 +28,26 @@ This means that he was like a lamb that did not have any defect--not even one.
If a doublet would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, consider these strategies.
1. Translate only one of the words or phrases.
1. If the doublet is used to intensify the meaning, translate one of the words or phrases and add a word that intensifies it such as “very” or “great” or “many.”
1. If the doublet is used to intensify or emphasize the meaning, use one of your language’s ways of doing that.
(1) Translate only one of the words or phrases.
(2) If the doublet is used to intensify the meaning, translate one of the words or phrases and add a word that intensifies it such as “very” or “great” or “many.”
(3) If the doublet is used to intensify or emphasize the meaning, use one of your language’s ways of doing that.
### Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Translate only one of the words.
> **You have decided to prepare ***false*** and ***deceptive*** words** (Daniel 2:9 ULT)
>> “You have decided to prepare ***false*** things to say.”
> You have decided to prepare **false** and **deceptive** words. (Daniel 2:9b ULT)
>> “You have decided to prepare **false** things to say.”
(2) If the doublet is used to intensify the meaning, translate one of the words and add a word that intensifies it such as “very” or “great” or “many.”
> **King David was ***old*** and ***advanced in years***.** (1 Kings 1:1 ULT)
>> “King David was ***very old***.”
> He has one people **scattered** and **dispersed** among the peoples (Esther 3:8 ULT)
>> “He has one people **very spread out**.”
(3) If the doublet is used to intensify or emphasize the meaning, use one of your language’s ways of doing that.
> **…a lamb ***without blemish*** and ***without spot***…** (1 Peter 1:19 ULT) - English can emphasize this with “any” and “at all.”
>> “…a lamb ***without any blemish at all***…”
> … like a lamb **without blemish** and **without spot**. (1 Peter 1:19b ULT)
>
> * English can emphasize this with “any” and “at all.”
>
> > “… like a lamb **without any blemish at all**.”

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### Description
Ellipsis is what happens when a speaker or writer leaves out one or more words from a sentence that it normally should have to be a complete sentence. The speaker or writer does this because he knows that the hearer or reader will understand the meaning of the sentence and supply the words in his mind when he hears or reads the words that are there. For example:
An ellipsis occurs when a speaker or writer leaves out one or more words that normally should be in the sentence. The speaker or writer does this because he knows that the hearer or reader will understand the meaning of the sentence and supply the words in his mind when he hears or reads the words that are there. For example:
> …the wicked will not stand in the judgment, ***nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous***. (Psalm 1:5)
> So the wicked will not stand in the judgment, **nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous**. (Psalm 1:5b)
There is ellipsis in the second part because “nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous” is not a complete sentence. The speaker assumes that the hearer will understand what it is that sinners will not do in the assembly of the righteous by filling in the action from the previous clause. With the action filled in, the complete sentence would be:
There is ellipsis in the second part because “nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous” is not a complete sentence. The speaker assumes that the hearer will understand what it is that sinners will not do in the assembly of the righteous by filling in the action from the previous clause. With the action filled in, the complete sentence would end:
>> …nor ***will*** sinners ***stand*** in the assembly of the righteous.
> > … nor **will** sinners **stand** in the assembly of the righteous.
#### There are two types of ellipsis.
1. A Relative Ellipsis happens when the reader has to supply the omitted word or words from the context. Usually the word is in the previous sentence, as in the example above.
2. An Absolute Ellipsis happens when the omitted word or words are not in the context, but the phrases are common enough in the language that the reader is expected to supply what is missing from this common usage, or from the nature of the situation.
2. An Absolute Ellipsis happens when the omitted word or words are not in the context, but the phrases are common enough in the language that the reader is expected to supply what is missing from this common usage or from the nature of the situation.
### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Readers who see incomplete sentences or phrases may not know that there is information missing that the writer expects them to fill in. Or readers may understand that there is information missing, but they may not know what information is missing because they do not know the original biblical language, culture, or situation as the original readers did. In this case, they may fill in the wrong information. Or readers may misunderstand the ellipsis if they do not use ellipsis in the same way in their language.
@ -23,48 +21,50 @@ Readers who see incomplete sentences or phrases may not know that there is infor
#### Relative Ellipsis
> He makes Lebanon skip like a calf ***and Sirion like a young ox***. (Psalm 29:6 ULT)
> He makes Lebanon skip like a calf **and Sirion like a young ox**. (Psalm 29:6 ULT)
The writer wants his words to be few and to make good poetry. The full sentence with the information filled in would be:
>> He makes Lebanon skip like a calf and ***he makes*** Sirion ***skip*** like a young ox.
> But if we are afflicted, ***for your comfort and salvation***; if we are comforted, ***for your comfort***,… (2 Corinthians 1:6)
> > He makes Lebanon skip like a calf and **he makes** Sirion **skip** like a young ox.
>
> Watch carefully, therefore, how you walk—**not as unwise but as wise**. (Ephesians 5:15)
The information that the reader must understand in the second parts of these sentences can be filled in from the first parts:
>> But if we are afflicted, ***we are afflicted*** for your comfort and salvation; if we are comforted, ***we are comforted*** for your comfort,…
> > Watch carefully, therefore, how you walk—**walk** not as unwise but **walk** as wise,
#### Absolute Ellipsis
> …when the blind man was near, Jesus asked him, “What do you want me to do for you?” He said, “Lord, ***that I might receive my sight***.” (Luke 18:40-41 ULT)
> Then when the he had come near, he asked him, “What do you want me to do for you?” So he said, “Lord, **I want to see again**.” (Luke 18:40b-41 ULT)
It seems that the man answered in an incomplete sentence because he wanted to be polite and not directly ask Jesus for healing. He knew that Jesus would understand that the only way he could receive his sight would be for Jesus to heal him. The complete sentence would be:
>> “Lord, ***I want you to heal me so*** that I might receive my sight.”
> To Titus…***Grace and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Savior***. (Titus 1:4 ULT)
> > “Lord, **I want you to heal me so** that I might receive my sight.”
> To Titus … **Grace and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Savior**. (Titus 1:4 ULT)
The writer assumes that the reader will recognize this common form of a blessing or wish, so he does not need to include the full sentence, which would be:
>> To Titus…***May you receive*** grace and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our savior.
> > To Titus … **May you receive** grace and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Savior.
### Translation Strategies
If ellipsis would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here is another option:
1. Add the missing words to the incomplete phrase or sentence.
(1) Add the missing words to the incomplete phrase or sentence.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Add the missing words to the incomplete phrase or sentence.
> **…the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor ***sinners in the assembly*** of the righteous.** (Psalm 1:5)
>> …the wicked will not stand in the judgment, and ***sinners will not stand in the assembly*** of the righteous
> **…when the blind man was near, Jesus asked him, “What do you want me to do for you?” He said, “Lord, ***that I might receive my sight***.”** (Luke 18:40-41)
>> …when the blind man was near, Jesus asked him, “What do you want me to do for you?” He said, “Lord, ***I want you to heal me*** that I might receive my sight.”
> **He makes Lebanon skip like a calf ***and Sirion like a young ox***.** (Psalm 29:6)
>> He makes Lebanon skip like a calf, and ***he makes*** Sirion ***skip*** like a young ox.
> So the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor **sinners in the assembly** of the righteous. (Psalm 1:5)
> > So the wicked will not stand in the judgment, and **sinners will not stand in the assembly** of the righteous.
> Then when the he had come near, he asked him, “What do you want me to do for you?” He said, “Lord, **that I might receive my sight**.” (Luke 18:40b-41)
> > Then when the man was near, Jesus asked him, “What do you want me to do for you?” He said, “Lord, **I want you to heal me** that I might receive my sight.”
> He makes Lebanon skip like a calf **and Sirion like a young ox**. (Psalm 29:6)
> > He makes Lebanon skip like a calf, and **he makes** Sirion **skip** like a young ox.

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### Description
A euphemism is a mild or polite way of referring to something that is unpleasant, embarrassing, or socially unacceptable, such as death or activities usually done in private.
### Definition
> … they found Saul and his sons **fallen** on Mount Gilboa. (1 Chronicles 10:8b ULT)
> …they found Saul and his sons ***fallen*** on Mount Gilboa. (1 Chronicles 10:8 ULT)
This means that Saul and his sons “were dead.” It is a euphemism because the important thing was not that Saul and his sons had fallen but that they were dead. Sometimes people do not like to speak directly about death because it is unpleasant.
This means that Saul and his sons “were dead”. It is a euphemism because the important thing was not that Saul and his sons had fallen but that they were dead. Sometimes people do not like to speak directly about death because it is unpleasant.
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Different languages use different euphemisms. If the target language does not use the same euphemism as in the source language, readers may not understand what it means and they may think that the writer means only what the words literally say.
### Examples from the Bible
> …where there was a cave. Saul went inside to relieve himself…(1 Samuel 24:3 ULT)
> … where there was a cave. Saul went inside to cover his feet. (1 Samuel 24:3b ULT)
The original hearers would have understood that Saul went into the cave to use it as a toilet, but the writer wanted to avoid offending or distracting them, so **he did not say specifically** what Saul did or what he left in the cave.
> Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since I have not slept with any man?” (Luke 1:34 ULT)
> But Mary said to the angel, “How will this be, since I have not known a man?” (Luke 1:34 ULT)
In order **to be polite**, Mary uses a euphemism to say that she has never had sexual intercourse with a man.
@ -27,22 +24,25 @@ In order **to be polite**, Mary uses a euphemism to say that she has never had s
If euphemism would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other options:
1. Use a euphemism from your own culture.
1. State the information plainly without a euphemism if it would not be offensive.
(1) Use a euphemism from your own culture.
(2) State the information plainly without a euphemism if it would not be offensive.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Use a euphemism from your own culture.
> **…where there was a cave. Saul went inside to ***relieve himself***.** (1 Samuel 24:3 ULT) - Some languages might use euphemisms like these:
>> “…where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave ***to dig a hole*** “
>> “…where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave ***to have some time alone*** “
> **Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since I have not ***slept with any man***?”** (Luke 1:34 ULT)
>> Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since ***I do not know a man***?” - (This is the euphemism used in the original Greek)
> … where there was a cave. Saul went inside to **cover his feet**. (1 Samuel 24:3b ULT) - Some languages might use euphemisms like these:
>
> > “… where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave **to dig a hole**“
> > “… where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave **to have some time alone**“
>
> But Mary said to the angel, “How will this be, since I have not **known a man**?” (Luke 1:34 ULT)
>
> > But Mary said to the angel, “How will this be, since **I do not know a man**?” - (This is the euphemism used in the original Greek)
(2) State the information plainly without a euphemism if it would not be offensive.
> **they found Saul and his sons ***fallen*** on Mount Gilboa.** (1 Chronicles 10:8 ULT)
>> “they found Saul and his sons ***dead*** on Mount Gilboa.”
> They found Saul and his sons **fallen** on Mount Gilboa. (1 Chronicles 10:8b ULT)
>
> > “They found Saul and his sons **dead** on Mount Gilboa.”

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What is a Euphemism?
What is a euphemism?

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### Description
In the Bible, events are not always told in the order in which they occurred. Sometimes the author wanted to discuss something that happened at an earlier time than the event that he just talked about. This can be confusing to the reader.
**Reason this is a translation issue:** Readers might think that the events happened in the order that they are told. It is important to help them understand the correct order of events.
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Readers might think that the events happened in the order that they are told. It is important to help them understand the correct order of events.
### Examples from the Bible
> But then Herod…had John locked up in prison. Now it came about, while all the people were being baptized by John, that Jesus also was baptized. (Luke 3:20-21 ULT)
> He even added this to them all: he locked John up in prison. Now it came about, when all the people were baptized, Jesus also was baptized. (Luke 3:20-21 ULT)
This could sound like John baptized Jesus after John was locked up in prison, but John baptized Jesus before John was locked up in prison.
> Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets… But Joshua commanded the people, saying, “Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout.” (Joshua 6:8-10 ULT)
> Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carrying seven trumpets of rams’ horns before Yahweh went forward and blew the trumpets, and the ark of the covenant of Yahweh followed after them. But Joshua commanded the people, saying, “Do not shout nor let your voice be heard, nor let any word leave your mouth until the day I tell you to shout. Then you must shout.” (Joshua 6:8,10 ULT)
This could sound like Joshua gave the order not to shout after the army had already started their march, but he had given that order before they started marching.
> Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Revelation 5:2 ULT)
> Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Revelation 5:2b ULT)
This sounds like a person must first open the scroll and then break its seals, but the seals that lock the scroll must be broken before the scroll can be unrolled.
### Translation Strategies
1. If your language uses phrases or time words to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using one of them.
1. If your language uses verb tense or aspect to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using that. (See the section on "Aspect" of [Verbs](../figs-verbs/01.md).)
1. If your language prefers to tell events in the order that they occurred, consider reordering the events so they they are in that order. This may require putting two or more verses together (like 5-6). (See [Verse Bridges](../translate-versebridge/01.md).)
(1) If your language uses phrases or time words to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using one of them.
(2) If your language uses verb tense or aspect to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using that. (See the section on “Aspect” of [Verbs](../figs-verbs/01.md).)
(3) If your language prefers to tell events in the order that they occurred, consider reordering the events so they they are in that order. This may require putting two or more verses together (like 5-6). (See [Verse Bridges](../translate-versebridge/01.md).)
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If your language uses phrases, time words or tenses to show that an event happened before the one just mentioned, consider using one of them.
> **<sup> 20</sup> But then Herod…had John locked up in prison. <sup> 21</sup> Now it came about, while all the people were being baptized by John, that Jesus also was baptized.** (Luke 3:20-21 ULT)
>> <sup> 20</sup> But then Herod…had John locked up in prison. <sup> 21</sup> ***Before John was put in prison,*** while all the people were being baptized by John, Jesus also was baptized.
> **Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?** (Revelation 5:2 ULT)
>> Who is worthy to open the scroll ***after*** breaking its seals?
> 20 he even added this to them all: he locked John up in prison. Now it came about, when all the people were baptized, Jesus also was baptized. (Luke 3:20-21 ULT)
>
> > 20 But then Herod … had John locked up in prison. 21 **Before John was put in prison,** while all the people were being baptized by John, Jesus also was baptized.
>
> Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Revelation 5:2b ULT)
>
> > Who is worthy to open the scroll **after** breaking its seals?
(2) If your language uses verb tense or aspect to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using that.
> **<sup> 8</sup> Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams’ horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets…<sup> 10</sup> But Joshua commanded the people, saying, “Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout.”** (Joshua 6:8-10 ULT)
>> <sup> 8</sup> Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets…<sup> 10</sup> But Joshua ***had commanded*** the people, saying, “Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout.
> Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carrying seven trumpets of rams’ horns before Yahweh went forward and blew the trumpets, But Joshua commanded the people, saying, “Do not shout nor let your voice be heard, nor let any word leave your mouth until the day I tell you to shout. Then you must shout.” (Joshua 6:8,10 ULT)
>
> > 8 Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams’ horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets 10 But Joshua **had commanded** the people, saying, “Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout.
(3) If your language prefers to tell events in the order that they occur, consider reordering the events. This may require putting two or more verses together (like 5-6).
> **<sup> 8</sup> Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets…<sup> 10</sup> But Joshua commanded the people, saying, “Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout.”** (Joshua 6:8-10 ULT)
>> <sup> 8-10</sup> Joshua commanded the people, saying, “Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout.” Then just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets…
> **Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?** (Revelation 5:2 ULT)
>> Who is worthy to break the seals and open the scroll?
> 8 Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carrying seven trumpets of rams’ horns before Yahweh went forward and blew the trumpets, But Joshua commanded the people, saying, “Do not shout nor let your voice be heard, nor let any word leave your mouth until the day I tell you to shout. Then you must shout.” (Joshua 6:8,10 ULT)
>
> > 8,10 Joshua commanded the people, saying, “Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout.” Then just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets…
>
> Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Revelation 5:2b ULT)
>
> > Who is worthy to break the seals and open the scroll?
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_events.
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs\_events.

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Why are the events not listed in the order they happened, and how do I translate them?
Why are some events not listed in the order they happened, and how do I translate them?

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### Description
Exclamations are words or sentences that show strong feeling such as surprise, joy, fear, or anger. In the ULT and UST, they usually have an exclamation mark (!) at the end. The mark shows that it is an exclamation. The situation and the meaning of what the people say helps us understand what feelings they were expressing. In the example below from Matthew 8, the speakers were terribly afraid. In the example from Matthew 9, the speakers were amazed, because something happened that they had never seen before.
Exclamations are words or sentences that show strong feeling such as surprise, joy, fear, or anger. In the ULT and UST, they usually have an exclamation mark (!) at the end. The mark shows that it is an exclamation. The situation and the meaning of what the people said helps us understand what feelings they were expressing. In the example below from Matthew 8, the speakers were terribly afraid. In the example from Matthew 9, the speakers were amazed, because something happened that they had never seen before.
> Save us, Lord; we are about to die! (Matthew 8:25 ULT)
> Save us, Lord; we are about to die! (Matthew 8:25b ULT)
> When the demon had been driven out, the mute man spoke. The crowds were astonished and said, “This has never been seen before in Israel!” (Matthew 9:33 ULT)
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Languages have different ways of showing that a sentence communicates strong emotion.
### Examples from the Bible
Some exclamations have a word that shows feeling. The sentences below have “Oh” and “Ah”. The word “oh” here shows the speaker’s amazement.
Some exclamations have a word that shows feeling. The sentences below have “Oh” and “Ah.” The word “oh” here shows the speaker’s amazement.
> ***Oh***, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! (Romans 11:33 ULT)
> **Oh**, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! (Romans 11:33 ULT)
The word “Ah” below shows that Gideon was very frightened.
> Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon said, “***Ah***, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!” (Judges 6:22 ULT)
The word “Alas” below shows that Gideon was very frightened.
Some exclamations start with a question word such as “how” or “why”, even though they are not questions. The sentence below shows that the speaker is amazed at how unsearchable God’s judgments are.
> ***How*** unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering! (Romans 11:33 ULT)
> When Gideon saw that he was the angel of Yahweh, Gideon lamented, “**Alas**, O my Lord Yahweh, for because of this I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!” (Judges 6:22 ULT)
>
> Some exclamations start with a question word such as “how” or “why,” even though they are not questions. The sentence below shows that the speaker is amazed at how unsearchable God’s judgments are.
>
> **How** unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering! (Romans 11:33b ULT)
Some exclamations in the Bible do not have a main verb. The exclamation below shows that the speaker is disgusted with the person he is speaking to.
> You worthless person! (Matthew 5:22 ULT)
> You worthless person! (Matthew 5:22b ULT)
### Translation Strategies
1. If an exclamation in your language needs a verb, add one. Often a good verb is “is” or “are”.
1. Use an exclamation word from your language that shows the strong feeling.
1. Translate the exclamation word with a sentence that shows the feeling.
1. Use a word that emphasizes the part of the sentence that brings about the strong feeling.
1. If the strong feeling is not clear in the target language, then tell how the person felt.
(1) If an exclamation in your language needs a verb, add one. Often a good verb is “is” or “are.”
(2) Use an exclamation word from your language that shows the strong feeling.
(3) Translate the exclamation word with a sentence that shows the feeling.
(4) Use a word that emphasizes the part of the sentence that brings about the strong feeling.
(5) If the strong feeling is not clear in the target language, then tell how the person felt.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If an exclamation in your language needs a verb, add one. Often a good verb is “is” or “are”.
(1) If an exclamation in your language needs a verb, add one. Often a good verb is “is” or “are.”
> **You worthless person!** (Matthew 5:22 ULT)
>> “You ***are*** such a worthless person!”
> **Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God!** (Romans 11:33 ULT)
>> “Oh, the riches of the wisdom and the knowledge of God ***are*** so deep!”
> You worthless person! (Matthew 5:22b ULT)
>
> > “You **are** such a worthless person!”
>
> Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! (Romans 11:33b ULT)
>
> > “Oh, the riches of the wisdom and the knowledge of God **are** so deep!”
(2) Use an exclamation word from your language that shows the strong feeling. The word “wow” below shows that they were astonished. The expression “Oh no” shows that something terrible or frightening has happened.
(2) Use an exclamation word from your language that shows the strong feeling. In the first suggested translation below, the word “wow” shows that they were astonished. In the second suggested translation, the expression “Oh no” shows that something terrible or frightening has happened.
> **They were absolutely astonished, saying, “He has done everything well. He even makes the deaf to hear and the mute to speak.”** (Mark 7:36 ULT)
>> “They were absolutely astonished, saying, ‘***Wow***! He has done everything well. He even makes the deaf to hear and the mute to speak.’”
> **Ah, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!** (Judges 6:22 ULT)
>> “***Oh no***, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!”
> They were extremely astonished, saying, “He has done everything well. He even makes the deaf hear and the mute speak.” (Mark 7:37 ULT)
>
> > “They were extremely astonished, saying, ‘**Wow**! He has done everything well. He even makes the deaf to hear and the mute to speak.’”
>
> Alas, oh my Lord Yahweh! For because of this I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face! (Judges 6:22b ULT)
>
> > “**Oh no**, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!”
(3) Translate the exclamation word with a sentence that shows the feeling.
> *****Ah***, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!** (Judges 6:22 ULT)
>> Lord Yahweh, ***what will happen to me***? For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!”
>> ***Help***, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!
> **Alas,** O my Lord Yahweh, for because of this I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!” (Judges 6:22 ULT)
>
> > Lord Yahweh, **what will happen to me**? For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!”
> > **Help**, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!
(4) Use a word that emphasizes the part of the sentence that brings about the strong feeling.
> **How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering!** (Romans 11:33 ULT)
>> “His judgments are ***so*** unsearchable and his ways are ***far*** beyond discovering!”
> How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering! (Romans 11:33b ULT)
>
> > “His judgments are **so** unsearchable and his ways are **far** beyond discovering!”
(5) If the strong feeling is not clear in the target language, then tell how the person felt.
> **Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon said, “***Ah***, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!”** (Judges 6:22 ULT)
>> “Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. ***He was terrified*** and said, “***Ah***, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!” (Judges 6:22 ULT)
> When Gideon saw that he was the angel of Yahweh, Gideon lamented, “**Alas,** O my Lord Yahweh, for because of this I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!” (Judges 6:22 ULT)
>
> > “Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. **He was terrified** and said, “**Alas**, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!”

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### Description
Some languages have more than one form of “we”: an **inclusive** form that means “I and you” and an **exclusive** form that means “I and someone else but ***not you***". The exclusive form excludes the person being spoken to. The inclusive form includes the person being spoken to and possibly others. This is also true for “us”, “our”, “ours”, and “ourselves”. Some languages have inclusive forms and exclusive forms for each of these. Translators whose language has separate exclusive and inclusive forms for these words will need to understand what the speaker meant so that they can decide which form to use.
Some languages have more than one form of “we”: an inclusive form that means “I and you” and an exclusive form that means “I and someone else but not you.” The exclusive form excludes the person being spoken to. The inclusive form includes the person being spoken to and possibly others. This is also true for “us,” “our,” “ours,” and “ourselves.” Some languages have inclusive forms and exclusive forms for each of these. Translators whose language has separate exclusive and inclusive forms for these words will need to understand what the speaker meant so that they can decide which form to use.
See the pictures. The people on the right are the people that the speaker is talking to. The yellow highlight shows who the inclusive “we” and the exclusive “we” refer to.
@ -10,24 +8,24 @@ See the pictures. The people on the right are the people that the speaker is tal
![](https://cdn.door43.org/ta/jpg/vocabulary/we_us_exclusive.jpg)
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. Like English, these languages do not have separate exclusive and inclusive forms for “we.” If your language has separate exclusive and inclusive forms of “we”, then you will need to understand what the speaker meant so that you can decide which form of “we” to use.
The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. Like English, these languages do not have separate exclusive and inclusive forms for “we.” If your language has separate exclusive and inclusive forms of “we,” then you will need to understand what the speaker meant so that you can decide which form of “we” to use.
### Examples from the Bible
> They said, “***We*** have no more than five loaves of bread and two fish, unless ***we*** went and bought food for all this crowd of people.” (Luke 9:13 ULT)
> They said, “There are not more than five loaves of bread and two fish with us—unless **we** go and buy food for all these people.” (Luke 9:13 ULT)
In the first clause, the disciples are telling Jesus how much food they have among them, so this “we” could be the inclusive form or the exclusive form. In the second clause, the disciples are talking about some of them going to buy food, so that “we” would be the exclusive form, since Jesus would not go to buy food.
In the second clause, the disciples are talking about some of them going to buy food, so that “we” would be the exclusive form, since Jesus would not go to buy food.
> ***we*** have seen, and bear witness, and declare to you the eternal life, which was with the Father, and was manifested to ***us*** (1 John 1:2 ULT)
> **We** have seen it, and **we** bear witness to it. **We** are announcing to you the eternal life, which was with the Father, and which has been made known to **us**. (1 John 1:2 ULT)
John is telling people who have not seen Jesus what he and the other apostles have seen. So languages that have exclusive forms of “we” and “us” would use the exclusive forms in this verse.
> …the shepherds said one to each other, “Let ***us*** now go to Bethlehem, and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has made known to ***us***.” (Luke 2:15 ULT)
> The shepherds said one to each other, “Let **us** now go to Bethlehem, and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has made known to **us**.” (Luke 2:15b ULT)
The shepherds were speaking to one another. When they said “us”, they were ***including*** the people they were speaking to - one another.
The shepherds were speaking to one another. When they said “us,” they were **including** the people they were speaking to - one another.
> Now it happened on one of those days that Jesus and his disciples entered into a boat, and he said to them, “Let ***us*** go over to the other side of the lake.” Then they set sail. (Luke 8:22 ULT)
> Now it happened that on one of those days, he indeed got into a boat with his disciples, and he said to them, “Let **us** go over to the other side of the lake.” So they set sail. (Luke 8:22 ULT)
When Jesus said “us”, he was referring to himself and to the disciples he was speaking to, so this would be the inclusive form.
When Jesus said “us,” he was referring to himself and to the disciples he was speaking to, so this would be the inclusive form.

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What is exclusive and inclusive “we”?
What are the exclusive and inclusive forms of “we”?

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Exclusive and Inclusive 'We'
Exclusive and Inclusive ‘We’

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An **extended metaphor** is an explicit metaphor that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. This is in contrast to a [simple metaphor](../figs-simetaphor/01.md), which uses only a single Image and a single Idea. The difference between an extended metaphor and a [complex metaphor](../figs-cometaphor/01.md) is that an extended metaphor is explicitly stated by a writer/speaker, but a complex metaphor is not.
An **extended metaphor** is an explicit metaphor that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. This is in contrast to a [simple metaphor](../figs-simetaphor/01.md), which uses only a single Image and a single Idea. The difference between an extended metaphor and a [complex metaphor](../figs-cometaphor/01.md) is that an extended metaphor is explicitly stated by a writer/speaker, but a complex metaphor is not.
### Explanation of an Extended Metaphor
When using a metaphor, a writer/speaker uses a physical Image in order to express an abstract Idea about some immediate Topic, with at least one point of comparison between the Topic and the Image. In an extended metaphor, the writer/speaker explicitly states the Topic, and then describes multiple images and communicates multiple ideas.
In Isaiah 5:1-7, the prophet Isaiah uses a vineyard (the **Image**) to express God’s disappointment (the **Idea**) with the nation of Israel (the **Topic**) for their unfaithfulness to God and his covenant with them as his people. Farmers care for their gardens, and a farmer would feel disappointed if his vineyard produced bad fruit. If a vineyard produced only bad fruit for a long enough time, the farmer would eventually stop caring for it. We call this an extended metaphor because the prophet describes in detail multiple images relating to a vineyard as well as multiple aspects of God's disappointment.
In Isaiah 5:1b-7, the prophet Isaiah uses a vineyard (the **Image**) to express God’s disappointment (the **Idea**) with the nation of Israel (the **Topic**) for their unfaithfulness to God and his covenant with them as his people. Farmers care for their gardens, and a farmer would feel disappointed if his vineyard produced bad fruit. If a vineyard produced only bad fruit for a long enough time, the farmer would eventually stop caring for it. We call this an extended metaphor because the prophet describes in detail multiple images relating to a vineyard as well as multiple aspects of God’s disappointment.
> <sup>1</sup> …My well beloved had a ***vineyard*** on a very fertile hill. <sup>2</sup> He ***spaded it*** and ***removed the stones***, and ***planted it*** with the choicest vine. He ***built a tower*** in the middle of it, and also ***built a winepress***. ***He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced wild grapes***. <sup>3</sup> So now, inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah; judge between me and my vineyard. <sup>4</sup> What more could have been done for my vineyard, that I have not done for it? ***When I looked for it to produce grapes, why did it produce wild grapes***? <sup>5</sup> Now I will inform you what I will do to my vineyard; I will remove the hedge; I will turn it into a pasture; I will break down its wall, and it will be trampled on. <sup>6</sup> I will lay it waste, and it will not be pruned nor hoed. But briers and thorns will spring up, I will also command the clouds not to rain on it. <sup>7</sup> For ***the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts is the house of Israel***, and the men of Judah his pleasant planting; ***he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing***; ***for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help***. (Isa 5:1-7 ULT)
> 1b My well beloved had a **vineyard** on a very fertile hill. 2 He **spaded it,** **removed the stones**, and **planted it** with an excellent kind of vine. He **built a tower** in the middle of it, and also **built a winepress**. **He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced wild grapes**. 3 So now, inhabitant of Jerusalem and man of Judah; judge between me and my vineyard. 4 What more could have been done for my vineyard, that I have not done for it? **When I looked for it to produce grapes, why did it produce wild grapes**? 5 Now I will tell you what I will do to my vineyard; I will remove the hedge; I will turn it into a pasture; I will break down its wall, and it will be trampled down. 6 I will lay it waste, and it will not be pruned nor hoed. Instead, briers and thorns will spring up. I will also command the clouds not to rain on it. 7 For **the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts is the house of Israel**, and the man of Judah his pleasant planting; **he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing**; **for righteousness, but, instead, a shout for help**. (Isa 5:1b-7 ULT)
### Other Examples from the Bible
In Psalm 23, the psalmist uses the physical **Image** of a shepherd to describe the way that God (the **Topic**) shows great concern and care (the **Idea**) for his people. The psalmist describes multiple aspects of what shepherds do for sheep (leads them to pasture and to water, protects them, etc.). The psalmist also describes multiple aspects of how God takes care of him (gives him life, righteousenss, comfort, etc.). Shepherds give sheep what they need, take them to safe places, rescue them, guide them, and protect them. What God does for his people is like these actions.
In Psalm 23, the psalmist uses the physical **Image** of a shepherd to describe the way that God (the **Topic**) shows great concern and care (the **Idea**) for his people. The psalmist describes multiple aspects of what shepherds do for sheep (leads them to pasture and to water, protects them, etc.). The psalmist also describes multiple aspects of how God takes care of him (gives him life, righteousness, comfort, etc.). Shepherds give sheep what they need, take them to safe places, rescue them, guide them, and protect them. What God does for his people is like these actions.
> <sup> 1</sup> Yahweh is my shepherd; I will lack nothing.
> <sup> 2</sup> He ***makes me*** to lie down in green pastures;
> he ***leads me*** beside tranquil water.
> <sup> 3</sup> He ***brings back*** my life;
> he ***guides me*** along right paths for his name’s sake.
> <sup> 4</sup> Even though I walk through a valley of darkest shadow,
> I will not fear harm since you are with me;
> your rod and your staff comfort me. (Psa 23:1-4 ULT)
> 1 Yahweh is my shepherd; I will lack nothing.
> 2 He **makes me** to lie down in green pastures;
> he **leads me** beside tranquil water.
> 3 He **brings back** my life;
> he **guides me** along right paths for his name’s sake.
> 4 Even though I walk through a valley of darkest shadow,
> I will not fear harm since you are with me;
> your rod and your staff comfort me. (Psalm 23:1-4 ULT)
### Reasons this is a translation issue
#### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
* People may not realize that the images represent other things.
* People may not be familiar with the things that are used as images.
@ -39,59 +39,59 @@ In Psalm 23, the psalmist uses the physical **Image** of a shepherd to describe
Consider using the same extended metaphor if your readers will understand it in the same way the original readers would have understood it. If not, here are some other strategies:
1. If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate the metaphor as a simile by using words such as “like” or “as”. It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two.
1. If the target audience would not know the image, find a way of translating it so they can understand what the image is.
1. If the target audience still would not understand, then state it clearly.
(1) If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate the metaphor as a simile by using words such as “like” or “as.” It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two.
(2) If the target audience would not know the image, find a way of translating it so they can understand what the image is.
(3) If the target audience still would not understand, then state it clearly.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate the metaphor as a simile by using words such as “like” or “as”. It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two. See Psalm 23:1-2 as an example:
(1) If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate the metaphor as a simile by using words such as “like” or “as.” It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two. See Psalm 23:1-2 as an example:
> **Yahweh is ***my shepherd***; I will lack nothing.**
> **He makes ***me*** to lie down in green pastures;**
> *****he leads me*** beside tranquil water.** (ULT)
> Yahweh is **my shepherd**; I will lack nothing.
> He makes **me** to lie down in green pastures;
> **he leads me** beside tranquil water. (ULT)
Can be translated as:
> “Yahweh is ***like*** a shepherd to me, so I will lack nothing.
> ***Like*** a shepherd who makes his sheep lie down in green pastures and leads them by peaceful waters,
> Yahweh helps me to rest peacefully.”
> “Yahweh is **like** a shepherd to me, so I will lack nothing.
> **Like** a shepherd who makes his sheep lie down in green pastures and leads them by peaceful waters, Yahweh helps me to rest peacefully.”
(2) If the target audience would not know the image, find a way of translating it so they can understand what the image is.
(2) If the target audience would not know the image, find a way of translating it so they can understand what the image is.
> **My well beloved had a ***vineyard*** on a very fertile hill.**
> **He ***spaded*** it and removed the stones, and planted it with the ***choicest*** vine.**
> **He built ***a tower*** in the middle of it, and also built a ***winepress***.**
> **He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced ***wild grapes***.** (Isaiah 5:1-2 ULT)
> My well beloved had a **vineyard** on a very fertile hill.
> He **spaded** it, removed the stones, and planted it with **an excellent kind of vine**.
> He built **a tower** in the middle of it, and also built a **winepress**.
> He waited for it to produce grapes, but it only produced **wild grapes.** (Isaiah 5:1b-2 ULT)
May be translated as:
> “My well beloved had a ***grapevine garden*** on a very fertile hill.
> He ***dug up the ground*** and removed the stones, and planted it with ***the best grapevines***.
> He built a ***watchtower*** in the middle of it, and also built ***a tank where he could crush the juice out of the grapes***.
> He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced ***wild grapes that were not good for making wine***.”
> My well beloved had a **grapevine garden** on a very fertile hill.
> He **dug up the ground** and removed the stones, and planted it with **the best grapevines**.
> He built a **watchtower** in the middle of it, and also built **a tank where he could crush the juice out of the grapes**.
> He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced **wild grapes that were not good for making wine**.”
(3) If the target audience still would not understand, then state it clearly.
(3) If the target audience still would not understand, then state it clearly.
> **Yahweh is ***my shepherd***; I will lack nothing.** (Psalm 23:1 ULT)
>> “Yahweh ***cares for me*** like a shepherd that cares for his sheep, so I will lack nothing.”
> **For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts ***is*** the house of Israel,**
> **and the men of Judah his pleasant planting;**
> **he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;**
> **for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help.** (Isaiah 5:7 ULT)
> Yahweh is **my shepherd**; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULT)
>
> > “Yahweh **cares for me** like a shepherd that cares for his sheep, so I will lack nothing.”
>
> For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts **is** the house of Israel,
> and the men of Judah his pleasant planting;
> he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;
> for righteousness, but, instead, a shout for help. (Isaiah 5:7 ULT)
Can be translated as:
>> For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts ***represents*** the house of Israel,
>> and the men of Judah ***are like*** his pleasant planting;
>> he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;
>> for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help.
> > For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts **represents** the house of Israel,
> > and the men of Judah **are like** his pleasant planting;
> > he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;
> > for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help.
or as:
>> ***So as a farmer stops caring for a grapevine garden that produces bad fruit***,
>> ***Yahweh will stop protecting*** Israel and Judah,
>> ***because they do not do what is right***.
>> he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;
>> for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help.
> > **So as** **a farmer stops caring** **for** **a** **grapevine** **garden that produces bad fruit**,
> > **Yahweh will stop protecting** Israel and Judah,
> > **because they do not do what is right.**
> > He waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;
> > for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help.

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Assumed knowledge is whatever a speaker assumes his audience knows before he speaks and gives them some kind of information. The speaker does not give the audience this information because he believes that they already know it.
* **Assumed knowledge** is whatever **a speaker assumes his audience knows** before he speaks and gives them some kind of information. The speaker does not give the audience this information because he believes that they already know it.
* When **the speaker does give the audience information**, he can do so in two ways:
* **Explicit information** is what the speaker states directly.
* **Implicit information** is what the speaker does not state directly because he expects his audience to be able to learn it from what he says.
When the speaker does give the audience information, he can do so in two ways. The speaker gives explicit information in what the he states directly. Implicit Information is what the speaker does not state directly because he expects his audience to be able to learn it from other things he says.
### Description
When someone speaks or writes, he has something specific that he wants people to know or do or think about. He normally states this directly. This is **explicit information**.
When someone speaks or writes, he has something specific that he wants people to know or do or think about. He normally states this directly. This is explicit information.
The speaker assumes that his audience already knows certain things that they will need to think about in order to understand this information. Normally he does not tell people these things, because they already know them. This is called **assumed knowledge**.
The speaker assumes that his audience already knows certain things that they will need to think about in order to understand this information. Normally he does not tell people these things, because they already know them. This is called assumed knowledge.
The speaker does not always directly state everything that he expects his audience to learn from what he says. **Implicit information** is information that he expects people to learn from what he says even though he does not state it directly.
The speaker does not always directly state everything that he expects his audience to learn from what he says. Implicit information is information that he expects people to learn from what he says even though he does not state it directly.
Often, the audience understands this **implicit information** by combining what they already know (**assumed knowledge**) with the **explicit information** that the speaker tells them directly.
Often, the audience understands this implicit information by combining what they already know (assumed knowledge) with the explicit information that the speaker tells them directly.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
#### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
All three kinds of information are part of the speaker’s message. If one of these kinds of information is missing, then the audience will not understand the message. Because the target translation is in a language that is very different than the biblical languages and is made for an audience that lives in a very different time and place than the people in the Bible, many times the **assumed knowledge** or the **implicit information** is missing from the message. In other words, modern readers do not know everything that the original speakers and hearers in the Bible knew. When these things are important for understanding the message, it is helpful if you include this information in the text or in a footnote.
All three kinds of information are part of the speaker’s message. If one of these kinds of information is missing, then the audience will not understand the message. Because the target translation is in a language that is very different from the biblical languages and is made for an audience that lives in a very different time and place than the people in the Bible, many times the assumed knowledge or the implicit information is missing from the message. In other words, modern readers do not know everything that the original speakers and hearers in the Bible knew. When these things are important for understanding the message, it is helpful if you include this information in the text or in a footnote.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
> Then a scribe came to him and said, “Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go.” Jesus said to him, “Foxes ***have holes***, and the birds of the sky ***have nests***, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.” (Matthew 8:20 ULT)
> Then a scribe came to him and said, “Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go.” Jesus said to him, “Foxes **have holes**, and the birds of the sky **have nests**, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.” (Matthew 8:19-20 ULT)
Jesus did not say what foxes and birds use holes and nests for, because he assumed that the scribe would have known that foxes sleep in holes in the ground and birds sleep in their nests. This is **assumed knowledge**.
Jesus did not directly say here “I am the Son of Man” but, if the scribe did not already know it, then that fact would be **implicit information** that he could learn because Jesus referred to himself that way. Also, Jesus did not state explicitly that he travelled a lot and did not have a house that he slept in every night. That is **implicit information** that the scribe could learn when Jesus said that he had nowhere to lay his head.
> Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! If the mighty deeds had been done in ***Tyre and Sidon*** which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the ***day of judgment*** than for you. (Matthew 11:21, 22 ULT)
> Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! If the mighty deeds had been done in **Tyre and Sidon** which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But I say to you, it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the **day of judgment** than for you. (Matthew 11:21-22 ULT)
Jesus assumed that the people he was speaking to knew that Tyre and Sidon were very wicked, and that the day of judgment is a time when God will judge every person. Jesus also knew that the people he was talking to believed that they were good and did not need to repent. Jesus did not need to tell them these things. This is all **assumed knowledge**.
Jesus assumed that the people he was speaking to knew that Tyre and Sidon were very wicked, and that the day of judgment is a time when God will judge every person. Jesus also knew that the people he was talking to believed that they were good and did not need to repent. Jesus did not need to tell them these things. This is all **assumed knowledge**.
An important piece of **implicit information** here is that the people he was speaking to would be judged more severely than the people of Tyre and Sidon would be judged **because** they did not repent.
> Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For ***they do not wash their hands when they eat***. (Matthew 15:2 ULT)
> Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For **they do not wash their hands when they eat**. **bread**. (Matthew 15:2 ULT)
One of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating. People thought that in order to be righteous, they had to follow all the traditions of the elders. This was **assumed knowledge** that the Pharisees who were speaking to Jesus expected him to know. By saying this, they were accusing his disciples of not following the traditions, and thus not being righteous. This is **implicit information** that they wanted him to understand from what they said.
@ -41,34 +38,47 @@ One of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash th
If readers have enough assumed knowledge to be able to understand the message, along with any important implicit information that goes with the explicit information, then it is good to leave that knowledge unstated and leave the implicit information implicit. If the readers do not understand the message because one of these is missing for them, then follow these strategies:
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge as explicit information.
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not know certain implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
(1) If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge as explicit information.
(2) If readers cannot understand the message because they do not know certain implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge as explicit information.
> **Jesus said to him, “Foxes ***have holes***, and the birds of the sky ***have nests***, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.”** (Matthew 8:20 ULT) - The assumed knowledge was that the foxes slept in their holes and birds slept in their nests.
>> Jesus said to him, “Foxes ***have holes to live in***, and the birds of the sky ***have nests to live in***, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head and sleep.”
> **it will be more tolerable for ***Tyre and Sidon*** at the day of judgment than for you** (Matthew 11:22 ULT) - The assumed knowledge was that the people of Tyre and Sidon were very, very wicked. This can be stated explicitly.
>> …it will be more tolerable for ***those cities Tyre and Sidon, whose people were very wicked***, at the day of judgment than for you.
>> or:
>> …it will be more tolerable for those ***wicked cities Tyre and Sidon*** at the day of judgment than for you.
> **Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For ***they do not wash their hands*** when they eat.** (Matthew 15:2 ULT) - The assumed knowledge was that one of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating, which they must do to be righteous. It was not to remove germs from their hands to avoid sickness, as a modern reader might think.
>> Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For ***they do not go through the ceremonial handwashing ritual of righteousness*** when they eat.
> Jesus said to him, “Foxes **have holes**, and the birds of the sky **have nests**, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.” (Matthew 8:20 ULT)
The assumed knowledge was that the foxes slept in their holes and birds slept in their nests.
> > Jesus said to him, “Foxes **have holes to live in**, and the birds of the sky **have nests to live in**, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head and sleep.”
> >
> >
>
> It will be more tolerable for **Tyre and Sidon** at the day of judgment than for you (Matthew 11:22 ULT)
The assumed knowledge was that the people of Tyre and Sidon were very, very wicked. This can be stated explicitly.
>
> > At the day of judgment, it will be more tolerable for **those cities of Tyre and Sidon, whose people were very wicked**, than it will be for you. or At the day of judgment, It will be more tolerable for those **wicked cities, Tyre and Sidon,** than for you.
>
> Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For **they do not wash their hands** when they eat bread. (Matthew 15:2 ULT)
The assumed knowledge was that one of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating, which they must do to be righteous. It was not to remove germs from their hands to avoid sickness, as a modern reader might think.
> > Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For **they do not go through the ceremonial handwashing ritual of righteousness** when they eat bread.
(2) If readers cannot understand the message because they do not know certain implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
> **Then a scribe came to him and said, “Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go.” Jesus said to him, “Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.”** (Matthew 8:19, 20 ULT) - The implicit information is that Jesus himself is the Son of Man. Other implicit information is that if the scribe wanted to follow Jesus, he would have to live like Jesus without a house.
>> Jesus said to him, “Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but ***I, the Son of Man***, have ***no home to rest in. If you want to follow me, you will live as I live***.”
> **it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you** (Matthew 11:22 ULT) - The implicit information is that God would not only judge the people; he would punish them. This can be made explicit.
>> At the day of judgment, God will ***punish Tyre and Sidon***, cities whose people were very wicked, ***less severely than he will punish you***.
>> or:
>> At the day of judgment, God will ***punish you more severely*** than Tyre and Sidon, cities whose people were very wicked.
> Then a scribe came to him and said, “Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go.” Jesus said to him, “Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.” (Matthew 8:19-20 ULT)
Modern readers may not know some of the things that the people in the Bible and the people who first read it knew. This can make it hard for them to understand what a speaker or writer says, and to learn things that the speaker left implicit. Translators may need to state some things explicitly in the translation that the original speaker or writer left unstated or implicit.
The implicit information is that Jesus himself is the Son of Man. Other implicit information is that if the scribe wanted to follow Jesus, then, like Jesus, he would have to live without a house.
> > Jesus said to him, “Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but **I, the Son of Man**, have **no home to rest in. If you want to follow me, you will live as I live**.”
>
> It will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you (Matthew 11:22 ULT)
The implicit information is that God would not only judge the people; he would punish them. This can be made explicit.
> > At the day of judgment, God will **punish Tyre and Sidon**, cities whose people were very wicked, **less severely than he will punish you**.
> > or:
> > At the day of judgment, God will **punish you more severely** than Tyre and Sidon, cities whose people were very wicked.
Modern readers may not know some of the things that the people in the Bible and the people who first read it knew. This can make it hard for them to understand what a speaker or writer says, and to learn things that the speaker left implicit. Translators may need to state some things explicitly in the translation that the original speaker or writer left unstated or implicit.

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### Description
Some languages have ways of saying things that are natural for them but sound strange when translated into other languages. One of the reasons for this is that some languages say things explicitly that some other languages would leave as implicit information.
Some languages have ways of saying things that are natural for them but sound strange when translated into Other Languages. One of the reasons for this is that some languages say things explicitly that some Other Languages would leave as implicit information.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
#### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
If you translate all of the explicit information from the source language into the explicit information in the target language, it could sound foreign, unnatural, or perhaps even unintelligent if the target language would not make that information explicit. Instead, it is best to leave that kind of information implicit in the target language.
### Examples from the Bible
> ***And*** Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower ***to burn it with fire***. (Judges 9:52 ESV)
> **Then** Abimelech came toward the tower and he fought against it, and approached as far as the entrance of the tower in order **to burn it with fire**. (Judges 9:52 ESV)
In Biblical Hebrew, it was normal to start most sentences with a conjunction such as “and” to show the connection between sentences. In English, it is not natural to do so, it is quite tiresome for the English reader, and it gives the impression that the author was uneducated. In English, it is best to leave the idea of connection between sentences implicit in most cases and not translate the conjunction explicitly.
In Biblical Hebrew, it is normal to start most sentences with a conjunction such as “and” to show the connection between sentences. In English, it is not natural to do so, it is quite tiresome for the English reader, and it gives the impression that the author is uneducated. In English, it is best to leave the idea of connection between sentences implicit in most cases and not translate the conjunction explicitly.
In Biblical Hebrew, it was normal to say that something was burned with fire. In English, the idea of fire is included in the action of burning, and so it is unnatural to state both ideas explicitly. It is enough to say that something was burned and leave the idea of fire implicit.
In Biblical Hebrew, it is normal to say that something was burned with fire. In English, the idea of fire is included in the action of burning, and so it is unnatural to state both ideas explicitly. It is enough to say that something was burned and leave the idea of fire implicit.
> The centurion ***answered and said***, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof…” (Matthew 8:8 ULT)
> But the centurion **answered and said**, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof …” (Matthew 8:8a ULT)
In the biblical languages, it was normal to introduce direct speech with two verbs of speaking. One verb indicated the action, and the other introduced the words of the speaker. English speakers do not do this, so it is very unnatural and confusing to use two verbs. For the English speaker, the idea of speaking is included in the idea of answering. Using two verbs in English implies two separate speeches, rather than just one. So in English, it is better to use only one verb of speaking.
### Translation Strategies
1. If the explicit information of the source language sounds natural in the target language, then translate it as explicit information.
1. If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, leave the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
(1) If the explicit information of the source language sounds natural in the target language, then translate it as explicit information.
(2) If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, leave the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
@ -32,20 +30,22 @@ In the biblical languages, it was normal to introduce direct speech with two ver
* There would be no change to the text using this strategy, so no examples are given here.
(2) If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, leave the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
(2) If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, make the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
> **And Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower to burn it with fire.** (Judges 9:52 ESV)
>> Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower ***to burn it***. (Or) ***…to set it on fire***.
> Then Abimelech came toward the tower and he fought against it, and he approached as far as the entrance of the tower in order to burn it with fire. (Judges 9:52 ESV)
>
> > Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it, and he approached the door of the tower **to burn it**. (Or) … **to set it on fire**.
In English, it is clear that the action of this verse follows the action of the previous verse without the use of the connector “and” at the beginning, so it was omitted. Also, the words “with fire” were left out, because this information is communicated implicitly by the word “burn.” An alternative translation for “to burn it” is “to set it on fire.” It is not natural in English to use both “burn” and “fire,” so the English translator should choose only one of them. You can test if the readers understood the implicit information by asking, “How would the door burn?” If they knew it was by fire, then they have understood the implicit information. Or, if you chose the second option, you could ask, “What happens to a door that is set on fire?” If the readers answer, “It burns,” then they have understood the implicit information.
> **The centurion answered and said, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof…”** (Matthew 8:8 ULT)
>> The centurion ***answered***, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof…”
> But the centurion answered and said, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof" (Matthew 8:8a ULT)
>
> > The centurion **answered**, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof”
In English, the information that the centurion answered by speaking is included in the verb “answered,” so the verb “said” can be left implicit. You can test if the readers understood the implicit information by asking, “How did the centurion answer?” If they knew it was by speaking, then they have understood the implicit information.
In English, the information that the centurion responded by speaking is included in the verb “answered,” so the verb “said” can be left implicit. You can test if the readers understood the implicit information by asking, “How did the centurion answer?” If they knew it was by speaking, then they have understood the implicit information.
> **And he opened his mouth and taught them, saying,** (Matthew 5:2 ULT)
>> ***He began to*** teach them, saying, (Or) He taught them, saying,
In English, it would be very strange to include the information that Jesus opened his mouth when he spoke. That information is included in the verbs "taught" and "saying," so that phrase can be omitted and that information left implicit. However, "he opened his mouth" is an idiom that indicates the beginning of a speech, so that information may be included, or it may also be left implicit.
> He opened his mouth and taught them, saying, (Matthew 5:2 ULT)
>
> > **He began to** teach them, saying, (Or) He taught them, saying,
In English, it would be very strange to include the information that Jesus opened his mouth when he spoke. That information is included in the verbs “taught” and “saying,” so that phrase can be omitted and that information left implicit. However, “he opened his mouth” is an idiom that indicates the beginning of a speech, so that information may be included, or it may also be left implicit.

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### Examples from the Bible
> Out of the eater was something to eat;
> out of the strong was something sweet. (Judges 14:14 ULT)
> From the eater came forth food;
> and from the strong one came forth sweetness. (Judges 14:14 ULT)
This was a riddle. Samson purposely said this in a way that it would be hard for his enemies to know what it meant. Do not make it clear that the eater and the strong thing was a lion and that the sweet thing to eat was honey.
> Jesus said to them, “Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees.” The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, “It is because we took no bread.” … (Matthew 16:6,7 ULT)
> Jesus said to them, “Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees.” They reasoned among themselves saying, “It is because we did not take bread.” (Matthew 16:6-7 ULT)
Some possible implicit information here is that the disciples should beware of the false teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. But Jesus’ disciples did not understand this. They thought that Jesus was talking about real yeast and bread. So it would not be appropriate to state explicitly that the word “yeast” here refers to false teaching. The disciples did not understand what Jesus meant until they heard what Jesus said in Matthew 16:11.
> “How is it that you do not understand that I was not speaking to you about bread? Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees.” Then they understood that he was not telling them to beware of yeast in bread, but to beware of the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. (Matthew 16:11,12 ULT)
> “How is it that you do not understand that I was not speaking to you about bread? Beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees.” Then they understood that he was not telling them to beware of yeast in bread, but to beware of the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. (Matthew 16:11-12 ULT)
Only after Jesus explained that he was not talking about bread did they realize that he was talking about the false teaching of the Pharisees. Therefore it would be wrong to explicitly state the implicit information in Matthew 16:6.
Only after Jesus explained that he was not talking about bread did they realize that he was talking about the false teaching of the Pharisees. Therefore, it would be wrong to explicitly state the implicit information in Matthew 16:6.
### Translation Strategies

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In the Bible, sometimes the words “men”, “brothers” and “sons” refer only to men. At other times, those words include both men and women. In those places where the writer meant both men and women, you (the translator) need to translate it in a way that does not limit the meaning to men.
In the Bible, sometimes the words “men,” “brothers,” and “sons” refer only to men. At other times, those words include both men and women. In those places where the writer meant both men and women, you (the translator) need to translate it in a way that does not limit the meaning to men.
### Description
In some languages a word that normally refers to men can also be used in a more general way to refer to both men and women. For example, the Bible sometimes says ‘***brothers***‘ when it refers to both brothers and sisters.
In some languages a word that normally refers to men can also be used in a more general way to refer to both men and women. For example, the Bible sometimes says "brothers" when it refers to both brothers and sisters.
Also in some languages, the masculine pronouns “he” and “him” can be used in a more general way for any person if it is not important whether the person is a man or a woman. In the example below, the pronoun is “his”, but it is not limited to males.
> A wise child makes ***his*** father rejoice
> but a foolish child brings grief to ***his*** mother. (Proverbs 10:1 ULT)
Also in some languages, the masculine pronouns “he” and “him” can be used in a more general way for any person if it is not important whether the person is a man or a woman. In the example below, the pronoun is “his,” but it is not limited to males.
> A wise son makes **his** father rejoice
> but a foolish son brings grief to **his** mother. (Proverbs 10:1 ULT)
#### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
* In some cultures words like “man,” “brother,” and “son” can only be used to refer to men. If those words are used in a translation in a more general way, people will think that what is being said does not apply to women.
* In some cultures, the masculine pronouns “he” and “him” can only refer to men. If a masculine pronoun is used, people will think that what is said does not apply to women.
@ -20,43 +19,46 @@ When a statement applies to both men and women, translate it in such a way that
### Examples from the Bible
> We want you to know, ***brothers***, about the grace of God that has been given to the churches of Macedonia. (2 Corinthians 8:1 ULT)
> Now we want you to know, **brothers**, the grace of God that has been given to the churches of Macedonia. (2 Corinthians 8:1 ULT)
This verse is addressing the believers in Corinth, not only men, but **men and women**.
> Then said Jesus to his disciples, “If anyone wants to follow me, ***he*** must deny ***himself***, take up ***his*** cross, and follow me.” (Matthew 16:24-26 ULT)
> Then said Jesus to his disciples, “If anyone wants to follow me, **he** must deny **himself**, take up **his** cross, and follow me.” (Matthew 16:24 ULT)
Jesus was not speaking only of men, but of **men and women**.
**Caution**: Sometimes masculine words are used specifically to refer to men. Do not use words that would lead people to think that they include women. The underlined words below are specifically about men.
**Caution**: Sometimes masculine words are used specifically to refer to men. Do not use words that would lead people to think that they include women. The words below are specifically about men.
> Moses said, ‘If a ***man*** dies, having no children, ***his*** ***brother*** must marry ***his*** wife and have a child for ***his*** ***brother***.’ (Matthew 22:24 ULT)
> Moses said, ‘If **someone** dies, not having children, **his** **brother** must marry **his** wife and have children for **his** **brother**.’ (Matthew 22:24 ULT)
### Translation Strategies
If people would understand that that masculine words like “man,” “brother,” and “he” can include women, then consider using them. Otherwise, here are some ways for translating those words when they include women.
1. Use a noun that can be used for both men and women.
1. Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.
1. Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.
(1) Use a noun that can be used for both men and women.
(2) Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.
(3) Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Use nouns that can be used for both men and women.
> **The wise ***man*** dies just like the fool dies.** (Ecclesiastes 2:16 ULT)
>> “The wise ***person*** dies just like the fool dies.”
>> “Wise ***people*** die just like fools die.”
> The wise **man** dies just like the fool dies. (Ecclesiastes 2:16b ULT)
>> “The wise **person** dies just like the fool dies.”
>> “Wise **people** die just like fools die.”
(2) Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.
> **For we do not want you to be ignorant, ***brothers***, about the troubles we had in Asia.** (2 Corinthians 1:8) - Paul was writing this letter to both men and women.
>> “For we do not want you to be ignorant, ***brothers and sisters***, about the troubles we had in Asia.” (2 Corinthians 1:8)
> For we do not want you to be uninformed, **brothers**, about the troubles that happened to us in Asia. (2 Corinthians 1:8) - Paul was writing this letter to both men and women.
>> “For we do not want you to be uninformed, **brothers and sisters**, about the troubles that happened to us in Asia.”
(3) Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.
> **If anyone wants to follow me, he must deny himself, take up his cross, and follow me.”** (Matthew 16:24 ULT) - English speakers can change the masculine singular pronouns, “he,” “himself,” and “his” to plural pronouns that do not mark gender, “they,” “themselves,” and “their” in order to show that it applies to all people, not just men.
>> “If ***people*** want to follow me, ***they*** must deny ***themselves***, take up ***their*** cross, and follow me.”
> If anyone wants to follow me, he must deny himself, take up his cross, and follow me.” (Matthew 16:24 ULT)
English speakers can change the masculine singular pronouns, “he,” “himself,” and “his” to plural pronouns that do not mark gender, “they,” “themselves,” and “their” in order to show that it applies to all people, not just men.
>
> > “If **people** want to follow me, **they** must deny **themselves**, take up **their** cross, and follow me.”

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### Description
Generic noun phrases refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things. This happens frequently in proverbs, because proverbs tell about things that are true about people in general.
> Can ***a man*** walk on hot coals without scorching his feet?
> So is ***the man who goes into his neighbor’s wife***;
> ***the one who has relations with her*** will not go unpunished. (Proverbs 6:28 ULT)
> Can **a man** walk on hot coals without scorching his feet?
> So is **the man who goes in to his neighbor’s wife**;
> **the one who touches her** will not go unpunished. (Proverbs 6:28-29 ULT)
The underlined phrases above do not refer to a specific man. They refer to any man who does these things.
The phrases in bold above do not refer to a specific man. They refer to any man who does these things.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Different languages have different ways of showing that noun phrases refer to something in general. You (the translator) should refer to these general ideas in ways that are natural in your language.
### Examples from the Bible
> The ***one who does what is right*** is kept away from trouble and it comes upon ***the wicked*** instead. (Proverbs 11:8 ULT)
> The **righteous person** is kept away from trouble and it comes upon **the wicked** instead. (Proverbs 11:8 ULT)
The underlined phrases above do not refer to a specific person but to anyone who does what is right or anyone who is wicked.
The bold phrases above do not refer to a specific person but to anyone who does what is right or anyone who is wicked.
> People curse ***the man who refuses to sell them grain***. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
> People curse **the man who refuses to sell grain**. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
This does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who refuses to sell grain.
> Yahweh gives favor to ***a good man***, but he condemns ***a man who makes evil plans***. (Proverbs 12:2 ULT)
> Yahweh gives favor to **a good man**, but he condemns **a man who makes evil plans**. (Proverbs 12:2 ULT)
The phrase “a good man” does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who is good. The phrase “a man who makes evil plans” does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who makes evil plans.
@ -31,37 +29,37 @@ The phrase “a good man” does not refer to a particular man, but to any perso
If your language can use the same wording as in the ULT to refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things, consider using the same wording. If not, here are some strategies you might use.
1. Use the word “the” in the noun phrase.
1. Use the word “a” in the noun phrase.
1. Use the word “any”, as in “any person” or “anyone.”
1. Use the plural form, as in “people.”
1. Use any other way that is natural in your language.
(1) Use the word “the” in the noun phrase.
(2) Use the word “a” in the noun phrase.
(3) Use the word “any,” as in “any person” or “anyone.”
(4) Use the plural form, as in “people.”
(5) Use any other way that is natural in your language.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Use the word “the” in the noun phrase.
> **Yahweh gives favor to ***a good man***, but he condemns ***a man who makes evil plans***.** (Proverbs 12:2 ULT)
>> “Yahweh gives favor to ***the good man***, but he condemns ***the man who makes evil plans***.” (Proverbs 12:2)
> Yahweh gives favor to **a good man**, but he condemns **a man who makes evil plans**. (Proverbs 12:2 ULT)
>> “Yahweh gives favor to **the good man**, but he condemns **the man who makes evil plans**.” (Proverbs 12:2)
(2) Use the word “a” in the noun phrase.
> **People curse ***the man*** who refuses to sell them grain.** (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse ***a man*** who refuses to sell them grain”
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **a man** who refuses to sell grain”
(3) Use the word “any, as in “any person” or “anyone.”
> **People curse ***the man*** who refuses to sell them grain.** (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse ***any man*** who refuses to sell them grain.”
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **any man** who refuses to sell grain.”
(4) Use the plural form, as in “people” (or in this sentence, “men”).
> **People curse ***the man*** who refuses to sell them grain.** (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse ***men*** who refuse to sell them grain”
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **men** who refuse to sell grain”
(5) Use any other way that is natural in your language.
> **People curse ***the man*** who refuses to sell them grain.** (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse ***whoever*** refuses to sell them grain.”
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **whoever** refuses to sell grain.”

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### Description
Different languages have different ways of determining whether to use the words “go” or “come” and whether to use the words “take” or “bring” when talking about motion. For example, when saying that they are approaching a person who has called them, English speakers say “I’m coming,” while Spanish speakers say “I’m going.” You will need to study the context in order to understand what is meant by the words "go" and "come" (and also “take” and “bring”), and then translate those words in a way that your readers will understand which direction people are moving in.
Different languages have different ways of determining whether to use the words “go” or “come” and whether to use the words “take” or “bring” when talking about motion. For example, when saying that they are approaching a person who has called them, English speakers say “I’m coming,” while Spanish speakers say “I’m going.” You will need to study the context in order to understand what is meant by the words “go” and “come” (and also “take” and “bring”), and then translate those words in a way that your readers will understand which direction people are moving in.
### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Different languages have different ways of talking about motion. The biblical languages or your source language may use the words “go” and “come” or “take” and “bring” differently than your language uses them. If these words are not translated in the way that is natural in your language, your readers may be confused about which direction people are moving.
### Examples from the Bible
> Yahweh said to Noah, “***Come***, you and all your household, into the ark” (Genesis 7:1 ULT)
> Yahweh said to Noah, “**Come**, you and all your household, into the ark” (Genesis 7:1 ULT)
In some languages, this would lead people to think that Yahweh was in the ark.
> But you will be free from my oath if you ***come*** to my relatives and they will not give her to you. Then you will be free from my oath. (Genesis 24:41 ULT)
> But you will be free from my oath if you **come** to my relatives and they will not give her to you. Then you will be free from my oath. (Genesis 24:41 ULT)
Abraham was speaking to his servant. Abraham’s relatives lived far away from where he and his servant were standing and he wanted his servant to ***go*** to them, not ***come*** toward Abraham.
Abraham was speaking to his servant. Abraham’s relatives lived far away from where he and his servant were standing and he wanted his servant to **go** to them, not **come** toward Abraham.
> When you have ***come*** to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it… (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULT)
> When you have **come** to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it … (Deuteronomy 17:14a ULT)
Moses is speaking to the people in the wilderness. They had not yet gone into the land that God was giving them. In some languages, it would make more sense to say, “When you have ***gone*** into the land…”
Moses is speaking to the people in the wilderness. They had not yet gone into the land that God was giving them. In some languages, it would make more sense to say, “When you have **gone** into the land …”
> Joseph and Mary ***brought*** him up to the temple in Jerusalem to present him to the Lord. (Luke 1:22 ULT)
> They **brought** him up to the temple in Jerusalem to present him to the Lord. (Luke 2:22b ULT)
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Joseph and Mary ***took*** or ***carried*** Jesus to the temple.
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that they**took** or **carried** Jesus to the temple.
> Behold, there came a man named Jairus, and he was one of the leaders of the synagogue. Jairus fell down at Jesus’ feet and implored him to ***come*** to his house, (Luke 8:41 ULT)
> Then see, there was a man whose name was Jairus, and he was a leader of the synagogue. And falling at the feet of Jesus, he begged him to come to his house. (Luke 8:41 ULT)
The man was not at his house when he spoke to Jesus. He wanted Jesus to ***go*** with him to his house.
The man was not at his house when he spoke to Jesus. He wanted Jesus to **go** with him to his house.
> Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not ***go*** out in public for five months. (Luke 1:24 UST)
> “What did you go out into the desert to see? A reed shaken by the wind? (Luke 7:24b ULT)
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Elizabeth did not ***come*** out in public.
In some languages, it might make more sense to ask what did you come out to see.
### Translation Strategies
If the word used in the ULT would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other strategies.
1. Use the word “go,” “come,” “take,” or “bring” that would be natural in your language.
1. Use another word that expresses the right meaning.
(1) Use the word “go,” “come,” “take,” or “bring” that would be natural in your language.
(2) Use another word that expresses the right meaning.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Use the word “go,” “come,” “take,” or “bring” that would be natural in your language.
> **But you will be free from my oath if you ***come*** to my relatives and they will not give her to you.** (Genesis 24:41 ULT)
>> But you will be free from my oath if you ***go*** to my relatives and they will not give her to you.
> **Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not ***go*** out in public for five months.** (Luke 1:24 UST)
>> Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not ***come*** out in public for five months.
> But you will be free from my oath if you **come** to my relatives and they will not give her to you. (Genesis 24:41 ULT)
>> But you will be free from my oath if you **go** to my relatives and they will not give her to you.
>“What did you go out into the desert to see? A reed shaken by the wind? (Luke 7:24b ULT)
>> “What did you come out into the desert to see? A reed shaken by the wind?
(2) Use another word that expresses the right meaning.
> **When you have ***come*** to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it…** (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULT)
>> “When you have ***arrived*** in the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it…”
> **Yahweh said to Noah, “***Come***, you and all your household, into the ark…** (Genesis 7:1 ULT)
>> “Yahweh said to Noah, “***Enter***, you and all your household, into the ark…”
> **Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not ***go*** out in public for five months.** (Luke 1:24 UST)
>> Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not ***appear*** in public for five months.
> When you have **come** to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it… (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULT)
>> “When you have **arrived** in the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it…”
> Yahweh said to Noah, “**Come**, you and all your household, into the ark… (Genesis 7:1 ULT)
>> “Yahweh said to Noah, “**Enter**, you and all your household, into the ark…”
> “What did you go out into the desert to see? A reed shaken by the wind? (Luke 7:24b ULT)
>> “What did you travel out into the desert to see? A reed shaken by the wind?

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translate/figs-grammar/01.md
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@ -1,9 +1,8 @@
Grammar has two main parts: words and structure. Structure involves how we put words together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Here is a brief overview of Grammar Topics we will deal with in detail.
Grammar has two main parts: words and structure. Structure involves how we put words together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences.
**Parts of Speech** - Every word in a language belongs to a category called a part of speech. (See [Parts of Speech](../figs-partsofspeech/01.md).)
**Parts of Speech** - Every word in a language belongs to a category called a part of speech. (See [Parts of Speech](../figs-partsofspeech/01.md).)
**Sentences** - When we speak, we organize our thoughts in sentences. A sentence usually has a complete thought about an event or a situation or state of being. (See [Sentence Structure](../figs-sentences/01.md).)
**Sentences** - When we speak, we organize our thoughts in sentences. A sentence usually has a complete thought about an event or a situation or state of being. (See [Sentence Structure](../figs-sentences/01.md).)
* Sentences can be statements, questions, commands, or exclamations. (See [Exclamations](../figs-sentencetypes/01.md).)
* Sentences can have more than one clause. (See [Sentence Structure](../figs-sentences/01.md).)
@ -11,10 +10,9 @@ Grammar has two main parts: words and structure. Structure involves how we put w
**Possession** - This shows that there is a relationship between two nouns. In English it is marked with “of” as in “the love of God,” or with “‘s” as in “God’s love,” or with a possessive pronoun as in “his love.” (See [Possession](../figs-possession/01.md).)
**Quotations** - A quotation is a report of what someone else has said.
**Quotations** - A quotation is a report of what someone else has said.
* Quotations normally have two parts: Information about who said something and what the person said. (See [Quotations and Quote Margins](../writing-quotations/01.md).)
* Quotations can be either direct quotes or indirect quotes. (See [Direct and Indirect Quotations](../figs-quotations/01.md).)
* Quotations can be either direct quotes or indirect quotes. (See [Direct and Indirect Quotations](../figs-quotations/01.md).)
* Quotes can have quotes within them. (See [Quotes within Quotes](../figs-quotesinquotes/01.md).)
* Quotes can be marked to make it easy for readers to understand who said what. (See [Quote Markings](../figs-quotemarks/01.md).)
* Quotes can be marked to make it easy for readers to understand who said what. (See [Quote Markings](../figs-quotemarks/01.md).)

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