Update 'README.md' (#2196)

README.md

@@ -94,6 +94,13 @@ Both Biblical Hebrew and Koiné Greek utilize different word forms to indicate g
 
 The ULT should retain the engendered language of Hebrew/Aramaic/Greek terms as much as possible. However, a notable exception to this rule concerns the translation of masculine participles (that is, verbal nouns and/or verbal adjectives) which actually refer to both men and women together; those terms can be translated without specifying gender.
 
+Some other general translation guidelines specifically for the English ULT include:
+
+* The ULT should follow formal American English usage, using “**that**” without a comma before restrictive relative clauses and “**which**” after a comma before non-restrictive clauses. British and informal American usage are more flexible about this, often saying “which” without a comma before restrictive relative clauses (which is ambiguous). The ULT should make clear whether a relative clause is restrictive or non-restrictive, using the above principle.
+* In speech introductions that use two verbs instead of one such as, “**he answered and said**,” retain this formula in the ULT. This will provide a model for languages which also separate the mode of speech from the act of speech, as does Biblical Hebrew and (often) Koiné Greek. In the UST, however, only one verb should be used in these cases.
+* When selecting a translation gloss to render an OrigL verb, mimic the formal verbal concept as much as possible. Any idiomatic or metaphorical use of the verbal concept will be included or explained in either the UST or UTN.
+
+
 ### Translation Glossary for the ULT
 
 A list of decisions as to how to translate some senses of the OrigL words and phrases into another language is called a Translation Glossary (TG). Such a device is especially useful when more than one person works on the same project, because it helps keep everyone using the same English terms. However, a TG cannot be foolproof, because the source will often use some words to signal more than one sense, depending on context. A TG is therefore a glossary of **word senses**, not a glossary of **words**. Check back often to this page, because this TG is likely to develop for the entire life of the unfoldingWord project.
@@ -108,9 +115,6 @@ Preferred English renderings for the ULT appear in bold type.
   * *Hand*  indicating power or possession: keep this metaphor in the ULT.
   * Sentence-initial or preverbal *and*  of the type, “And Joseph said,” “And it came about,” etc.: these should be rendered in English somehow, usually as the conjunction "**and**." However, a different conjunction ("**but**", "**so**", etc.) may be selected in cases where a specific logical relationship is clear from the context.
   * **Shall** vs. **will** : in English future expressions in general, use “**will**” instead of “shall,” e.g., “he is a prophet, and he <del>shall</del> **will** pray for you” (Gen 20:7). Note that some ASV future expressions are better updated into today’s English by using the present tense, e.g., “I shall not drink from…the fruit of the vine, until the kingdom of God shall come” (Luke 22:18) can be updated to “I **will** not drink…until the kingdom of God **comes**.” Cases in which “shall” expresses obligation can usually be restructured, e.g., “You shall not steal” becomes “ **Do** not steal;” and, “Shall I go and smite these Philistines?” (1 Sam. 23:2) becomes “**Should** I go and attack these Philistines?” This general preference for “will” probably conforms to the instincts of most English native speakers. However, in genres such as prophecies, blessings, curses, and in other passages focusing on the expression of the speaker’s intentionality, retain the use of “shall” in the ULT. For example: “Yahweh said, **’Shall** I hide from Abraham what I am about to do…?’” (Gen 18:17); “A deliverer **shall** come to Zion;” “every mountain and hill **shall** be made low.”
-  * In speech introductions that use two verbs instead of one such as, “**he answered and said**,” retain this formula in the ULT. This will provide a model for languages which also separate the mode of speech from the act of speech, as does Biblical Hebrew and (often) Koiné Greek. In the UST, however, only one verb should be used in these cases.
-  * When selecting a translation gloss for rendering an OrigL verb, mimic the formal verbal concept as exactly as possible. Any idiomatic or metaphorical use of the verbal concept will be included or explained in either the UST or UTN.
-  * For relative clauses where English adds a "to be" verb, the verb should be aligned with the predicate if possible, especially if the predicate is a prepositional phrase. Sometimes the predicate is a compound, in which case the added "to be" verb should be aligned with the applicable OrigL relative pronoun/particle.
 
 
 ### Translation Glossary for the Old Testament
@@ -120,7 +124,7 @@ Preferred English renderings for the ULT appear in bold type.
   * *Ark of the Covenant* –– The ULT will use the word "**Box**" ("Box of the Testimony" in Exodus, "Box of the Covenant of Yahweh" in Joshua, etc.), and the UST will use the term "**sacred chest**."
   * *be* (בְּ) As a general rule, this preposition should usually be rendered as "**in**," "**at**," or "**by**." However, the specific translation gloss used should always be determined by the specific context.
   * *ben, beney* as in "son of a night" or “sons of Israel” or “sons of God” should remain as "**son**" or “**sons**.”
-  * construct phrases –– It is prefereable for Hebrew and Aramaic construct phrases to be rendered as "**[construct noun] of [abstract noun]**" as much as possible to be understandable in English.  Some notable exceptions to this rule include phrases that use the construct form of כֹּל or כָּל, construct phrases that include numerals, and phrases where the absolute noun functions adjectivally. If using the standard "of" construction is not understandable in English, often the next best alternative is to render the absolute noun as an attributive adjective.
+  * construct phrases –– It is preferable for Hebrew and Aramaic construct phrases to be rendered as "**[construct noun] of [abstract noun]**" as much as possible to be understandable in English.  Some notable exceptions to this rule include phrases that use the construct form of כֹּל or כָּל, construct phrases that include numerals, and phrases where the absolute noun functions adjectivally. If using the standard "of" construction is not understandable in English, often the next best alternative is to render the absolute noun as an attributive adjective.
   * Expressions of the type, “**he knew his wife**” or “**he went into his wife**” should be reproduced as is. The context makes their meaning clear.
   * *herem* This concept should be translated according to what it appears to mean locally in its immediate context.  This might include either the concept of a **"ban"** or the concept of **"complete destruction"**, etc.
   * *hesed* should be translated as "**covenant faithfulness**" except in cases where the context is clear that a different meaning is warranted.
@@ -135,8 +139,8 @@ Preferred English renderings for the ULT appear in bold type.
   * *mishpat* (מִשְׁפָּט) should be rendered "**judgments**" wherever possible, because it is the derivative noun of שׁפט (to judge). However, in instances where it clearly does not mean "judgments", then the English term "**ordinance**" should be used when referring to a religious rule, and another word such as "**regulation**" when referring to a more civil or legal rule.
   * *na'* This Hebrew particle (נָא) must be translated on a case-by-case basis and always with great sensitivity to the specific context of the speech in which it occurs. The term often means something like, "I know/fear that you don't want to do what I am about to tell/ask you to do, but I want you to do it anyway." There is no direct translational equivalent for this term in English, but some general guidelines are as follows. When the particle appears with a verb in the context of a request made by a person of inferior position to a person of superior position, it can be translated as "please." But the particle also occurs often in situations where a person of superior position gives a command to a person of inferior position, and in these cases the particle must be rendered in accordance with the interpretation of the specific context. Many instances of the particle occur in contexts where translating the particle as a separate word in English may import too much meaning into the English rendering. Because this particle is an emotive word in Hebrew, in cases like these one might use an exclamation point at the end of the specific clause in order to reflect in the English translation the emotion intended by the use of the particle. It is also acceptable to leave the particle untranslated if translating it would change the meaning from the Hebrew too much.
   * Niphal stem –– This form of the verb should be rendered according to the sense of each individual context, usually as a **passive**, **reflexive**, or **stative**.
-  * numerals –– Retain the Hebrew use of ordinal and cardinal numbers as much as possible, except in cases where this makes the English rendering unable to be understood. In these cases, use standard English convention of ordinal an cardinal numerals.
-  * participles –– Definite participle should be rendered as "**the ones who…**" if possible, unless it makes the English reading too awkward or unable to be understood. Retain the verbal sense of the participle ("**those who live**") rather than making it a noun ("inhabitants") wherever possible.
+  * numerals –– Retain the Hebrew use of ordinal and cardinal numbers as much as possible, except in cases where it makes the English rendering unable to be understood. In these cases, use standard English convention for ordinal and cardinal numerals.
+  * participles –– Hebrew definite participles should be rendered as "**the ones who…**" if possible, unless it makes the English reading too awkward or unable to be understood. Retain the verbal sense of the participle ("**those who live**") rather than making it a noun ("inhabitants") wherever possible.
   * pleonasms –– There are many instances where Hebrew convention repeats a referent (especially in relative phrases) that has already been stipulated earlier in the sentence.  For example, a very literal rendering of the relative phrase in Ruth 2:19 would read, "…the man whom she had worked with **him**…". The term "him" is redundant in English and should be omitted in the ULT rendering.  Instead, this phrase should read, "…the man with whom she had worked…" in accordance with standard English convention.
   * *tebah* should remain as "**ark**"
   * *wayehi* “**It came about,**” “**It happened that…**”
@@ -205,6 +209,7 @@ For English, we follow these principles, but other GL's may need a different lis
 * Often the OrigL and English part of speech won’t match. That is inevitable. Often an original language word will be translated as a English phrase. For example, the three words “does not lie” in English all align with the single word *apseudes* in Titus 1:2.
 * Sometimes particles in the OrigL are not translated in English. These should be aligned to make the alignment between the OrigL and the English as precise as possible. For example, in most cases the Hebrew direct object marker should be merged with the Hebrew direct object and aligned with that translated word in English.  However, in cases where the direct object marker has a conjunction prefix that must be translated in English, then the Hebrew word containing the conjunction and direct object marker should be aligned with the translated conjunction in English.
 * When aligning verbal negations, align any English helping verbs with the OrigL verb.  Only align the English term(s) of negation with the negative particle in the OrigL.
+* For relative clauses where English adds a "to be" verb, the verb should be aligned with the predicate if possible, especially if the predicate is a prepositional phrase. Sometimes the predicate is a compound, in which case the added "to be" verb should be aligned with the applicable OrigL relative pronoun/particle.
 
 Other alignment issues pertinent to Biblical Hebrew include the following: