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Joel's edits to UHG v.1 (#410)
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Joel D. Ruark
Gogs
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@ -8,53 +8,50 @@ Pronoun
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Summary
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-------
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A pronoun replaces a noun or noun phrase. For example, instead of
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writing "the man" multiple times, the writer uses "he" to avoid
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repeating the noun.
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A pronoun is a word that refers to a person or a thing, but in an indirect way.
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Article
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-------
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A pronoun is a word that, like a
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:ref:`noun`,
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refers to a person or a thing, but it does not have any meaning in
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itself.
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In Biblical Hebrew, pronouns can function as either a :ref:`noun<noun>`, an :ref:`adjective<adjective>`, or a :ref:`relative particle<particle_relative>`.
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For example, the personal pronoun "he" can be used to refer to a man instead of the :ref:`definite<definiteness>` noun "the man".
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Types
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-----
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Scholars identify the following five types of pronouns.
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Biblical Hebrew contains the following five types of pronouns.
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:ref:`pronoun_demonstrative`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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:ref:`Demonstrative pronoun<pronoun_demonstrative>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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.. include:: pronoun_demonstrative.rst
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:start-after: -------
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:end-before: Article
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:ref:`pronoun_indefinite`
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:ref:`Indefinite pronoun<pronoun_indefinite>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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.. include:: pronoun_indefinite.rst
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:start-after: -------
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:end-before: Article
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:ref:`pronoun_interrogative`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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:ref:`Interrogative pronoun<pronoun_interrogative>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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.. include:: pronoun_interrogative.rst
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:start-after: -------
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:end-before: Article
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:ref:`pronoun_personal`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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:ref:`Personal pronoun<pronoun_personal>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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.. include:: pronoun_personal.rst
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:start-after: -------
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:end-before: Article
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:ref:`pronoun_relative`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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:ref:`Relative pronoun<pronoun_relative>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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.. include:: pronoun_relative.rst
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:start-after: -------
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291
content/stem.rst
291
content/stem.rst
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@ -8,20 +8,65 @@ Stem
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Summary
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-------
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The stem formation of a verb indicates both the *kind* of verbal action
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(simple, intensive, causative, etc.) and its *voice* (active, passive,
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reflexive, etc.).
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The stem formation of a verb indicates both the kind of verbal action
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(simple, intensive, causative, etc.) and the voice (active, passive,
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reflexive, etc.) of the verb.
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Article
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-------
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In Biblical Hebrew, all
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:ref:`verb`
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have both a stem formation (Qal, Niphal, Piel, etc.) and a conjugation
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(Perfect, Imperfect, Imperative, etc.). These work
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together like two "layers", and each layer supplies different
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information about the verb. In Biblical Hebrew, there are seven major
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stems and several rare ones.
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In Biblical Hebrew, all :ref:`verbs<verb>` have both a stem formation (Qal, Niphal, Piel, etc.) and a conjugation
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(Perfect, Imperfect, Imperative, etc.). These work together like two "layers", and each layer supplies different
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information about the verb. In Biblical Hebrew, there are seven major stem formations and several rare ones.
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Form
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----
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This is a brief overview on how to quickly recognize the simplest forms
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of each stem:
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:ref:`Qal<stem_qal>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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The simplest form of the verb, often has "a" vowels (qamets or patah).
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:ref:`Niphal<stem_niphal>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Adds נִ (nun with hireq) to the beginning of the verb. If the form also
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adds a prefix (like in the prefix conjugation), the נ disappears and
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causes the 1st radical to double (with a daghesh).
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:ref:`Hiphil<stem_hiphil>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Often has הִ (he with hireq) before the verb, or a patah under the
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letter that the form adds before the root.
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:ref:`Hophal<stem_hophal>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Also adds a ה before the verb, but with a qamets hatuf (or sometimes
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qibbuts) vowel.
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:ref:`Piel<stem_piel>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Here the 2nd radical of the verb is doubled (with a daghesh), and
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usually have a shewa or a hireq under the 1st radical.
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:ref:`Pual<stem_pual>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Also doubles the 2nd radical but often has a qibbuts under the 1st
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radical.
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:ref:`Hithpael<stem_hithpael>`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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It adds הִתְ (he with hireq and taw with shewa) before the verb, and
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puts a qamets or patah under the 1st radical.
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Function
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--------
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@ -34,63 +79,175 @@ their most common functions.
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Active Voice,Passive/Reflexive Voice
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Simple Action,"Qal (simple action, active voice)","Niphal (simple action, passive voice)"
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Causative Action,"Niphal (simple action, passive voice)","Hophal (causative action, passive voice)"
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Intensive Action,"Piel (intensive action, active voice)[see note]","Pual (intensive action, passive voice)"
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Intensive Action,--,"Hithpael (intensive action, reflexive voice)"
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Intensive Action,"Piel (resultative action, active voice)[see note]","Pual (resultative action, passive voice)"
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Intensive Action,--,"Hithpael (resultative action, reflexive voice)"
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.. include:: includes/consult_dictionary.txt
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Form
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----
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Expresses the kind of verbal action
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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This is a brief overview on how to quickly recognize the simplest forms
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of each stem:
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Simple action
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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:ref:`stem_qal`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Simple action refers to a typical :ref:`dynamic<verb-dynamic>` verb;
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that is, the verb describes an action being performed by the subject of the verb.
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The simplest form of the verb, often has "a" vowels (qamets or patah).
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.. csv-table:: Example: GEN 16:2 –– Qal stem expressing simple action (dynamic verb)
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:ref:`stem_niphal`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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וַתֹּ֨אמֶר שָׂרַ֜י אֶל־אַבְרָ֗ם
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**wattomer** saray 'el-'avram
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**And-she-said** Sarai to\_Abram
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So Sarai **said** to Abram
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Adds נִ (nun with hireq) to the beginning of the verb. If the form also
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adds a prefix (like in the prefix conjugation), the נ disappears and
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causes the 1st radical to double (with a daghesh).
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Stative action
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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:ref:`stem_piel`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Stative action refers to a typical :ref:`stative<verb-stative>` verb;
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that is, the verb describes the subject of the verb as being in a certain state/condition.
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Here the 2nd radical of the verb is doubled (with a daghesh), and
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usually have a shewa or a hireq under the 1st radical.
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.. csv-table:: Example: GEN 6:11 –– Qal stem expressing stative action (stative verb)
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:ref:`stem_pual`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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וַתִּמָּלֵ֥א הָאָ֖רֶץ חָמָֽס
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**wattimmale** ha'arets hamas
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**and-it-was-full** the-earth violence
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**and it was filled** with violence.
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Also doubles the 2nd radical but often has a qibbuts under the 1st
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radical.
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Causative action
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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:ref:`stem_hiphil`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Causative action means that the subject of the verb is causing the
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object of the verb either to perform the verbal action (with :ref:`dynamic<verb-dynamic>` verbs)
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or to be in the state described by the verb (with :ref:`stative<verb-stative>` verbs).
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In English, causative action is expressed using the main verb "to cause" paired with the infinitive of the verbal action
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in view. In Biblical Hebrew, the causative nature of the verbal action
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is expressed by the stem formation itself with no additional
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verbal element.
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Often has הִ (he with hireq) before the verb, or a patah under the
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letter that the form adds before the root.
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.. csv-table:: Example: PSA 98:2 –– Hiphil stem expressing causative action of a dynamic verb ("to cause to know")
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:ref:`stem_hophal`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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הוֹדִ֣יעַ יְ֭הוָה יְשׁוּעָת֑וֹ
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**hodia'** yehwah yeshu'atho
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**He-made-known** Yahweh his-salvation
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Yahweh **has made known** his salvation
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Also adds a ה before the verb, but with a qamets hatuf (or sometimes
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qibbuts) vowel.
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.. csv-table:: Example: GEN 21:19 –– Piel stem expressing causative action of a stative verb ("to cause to be filled")
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:ref:`stem_hithpael`
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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וַתֵּ֜לֶךְ **וַתְּמַלֵּ֤א** אֶת־הַחֵ֙מֶת֙ מַ֔יִם
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wattelekh **wattemalle** 'eth-hahemeth mayim
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and-she-went **and-she-filled** [dir.obj]\_the-skin-of water
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She went **and filled** the skin with water
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It adds הִתְ (he with hireq and taw with shewa) before the verb, and
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puts a qamets or patah under the 1st radical.
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Resultative action
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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.. _stem-uncommon-stems:
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Resultative action means that the primary focus of the verb is on the
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result of the verbal action.
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Uncommon stems
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--------------
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.. csv-table:: Example: GEN 21:6 –– Piel stem expressing resultative action
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וַיִּתֵּ֣ן ... וְאֶת־הַיֶּ֖לֶד וַֽיְשַׁלְּחֶ֑הָ
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wayyitten ... we'eth-hayyeled **wayeshalleheha**
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and-he-gave ... and-[dir.obj]\_the-boy **and-he-sent-her-away**
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He gave her the boy and **sent her away**
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Intensive action
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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Intensive action means that the verbal action is strengthened in some
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way.
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.. csv-table:: Example: EXO 9:25 –– Piel stem expressing intensive action
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אֶת־מִזְבְּחֹתָם֙ תִּתֹּצ֔וּן וְאֶת־מַצֵּבֹתָ֖ם תְּשַׁבֵּר֑וּן
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'eth-mizbehotham tittotsun we'eth-matsevotham **teshabberun**
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"[dir.obj]\_their-altars you-break-down and-[dir.obj]\_their-pillars
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**you-shatter**"
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"you must break down their altars, **smash** their stone pillars"
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Expresses the voice of the verb
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Active voice
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~~~~~~~~~~~~
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Active voice mean that the subject of the verb is performing the action described by the verb.
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Most verbs are in the active voice.
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.. csv-table:: Example: GEN 16:2
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וַתֹּ֨אמֶר שָׂרַ֜י אֶל־אַבְרָ֗ם
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**wattomer** saray 'el-'avram
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**And-she-said** Sarai to\_Abram
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So Sarai **said** to Abram
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Passive voice
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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Passive voice means that the subject of the verb is *receiving* the
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action rather than *performing* the action. In English, passive voice is
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expressed using the helping verb "to be." In Biblical Hebrew, the
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passive nature of the verbal action is expressed by the stem formation itself without any helping verbs.
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.. csv-table:: Example: 2KI 21:18
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וַיִּקָּבֵ֥ר בְּגַן־בֵּית֖וֹ
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**wayyiqqaver** began-betho
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**and-he-was-buried** in-garden-of\_his-house
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**and he was buried** in the garden of his own house
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Reflexive voice
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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Reflexive voice means that the subject of the verb is *both* performing
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*and* receiving the action. In English, reflexive voice is expressed
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using a reflexive pronoun as the object of the verb, "I tell *myself*".
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In Biblical Hebrew, the reflexive nature of the verbal action is
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expressed by the stem formation of the verb itself without any additional
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words.
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.. csv-table:: Example: NUM 1:21
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הִבָּ֣דְל֔וּ מִתּ֖וֹךְ הָעֵדָ֣ה הַזֹּ֑את
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**hibbodlu** mittokh ha'edah hazzoth
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**Separate-yourselves** from-midst-of the-congregation the-this
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**Separate yourselves** from among this community
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Middle voice
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~~~~~~~~~~~~
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Middle voice means that the subject receives the action but also is
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(partially) involved in performing the action. This kind of action
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stands somewhere between passive voice and reflexive voice.
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.. csv-table:: Example: GEN 3:5
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וְנִפְקְח֖וּ עֵֽינֵיכֶ֑ם
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**wenifqehu** 'enekhem
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**and-they-will-be-opened** your-eyes
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your eyes **will be opened**
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Reciprocal voice
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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Reciprocal voice means that multiple subjects are in view who are both
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performing the action for another and receiving the action from another.
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In English, reciprocal voice is expressed using the phrase "each other"
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as the object of the verb, "They tell each other." Reciprocal voice must be distinguished from reflexive voice. The phrase
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"They tell themselves" is reflexive: the subject "they" is a unified
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group and the action could be expressed reflexively for each individual
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as "he tells himself, and he tells himself, and she tells herself, etc."
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The phrase "They tell each other" is reciprocal: each member of the
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group is telling something to another member of the group, and each
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member of the group is being told something by another member of the
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group.
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.. _stem-rare-stems:
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Rare stem formations
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--------------------
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Most of these stems occur only a few times in the Hebrew Bible. Their
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function is usually similar to one of the above stems, or a combination
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@ -99,38 +256,42 @@ its function is this: If it sounds similar to one of the seven common
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stems, it probably means something similar as well.
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The uncommon stems are:
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:ref:`stem_hishtaphel`
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:ref:`Hishtaphel<stem_hishtaphel>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_hithpalpel`
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:ref:`Hithpalpel<stem_hithpalpel>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_hithpoel`
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:ref:`Hithpoel<stem_hithpoel>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_hithpolel`
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:ref:`Hithpolel<stem_hithpolel>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_hothpaal`
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:ref:`Hothpaal<stem_hothpaal>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_nithpael`
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:ref:`Nithpael<stem_nithpael>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_palel`
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:ref:`Palel<stem_palel>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_pealal`
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:ref:`Pealal<stem_pealal>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_pilel`
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:ref:`Pilel<stem_pilel>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_pilpel`
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:ref:`Pilpel<stem_pilpel>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_poal`
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:ref:`Poal<stem_poal>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_poel`
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:ref:`Poel<stem_poel>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_polal`
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:ref:`Polal<stem_polal>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_polel`
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:ref:`Polel<stem_polel>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_polpal`
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:ref:`Polpal<stem_polpal>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_pulal`
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:ref:`Pulal<stem_pulal>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_qal_passive`
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:ref:`Qal Passive<stem_qal_passive>`
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-
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:ref:`stem_tiphil`
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:ref:`Tiphil<stem_tiphil>`
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