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Co-authored-by: justplainjane47 <justplainjane47@noreply.door43.org>
Reviewed-on: https://git.door43.org/unfoldingWord/en_ta/pulls/399
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Assumed knowledge is whatever a speaker assumes his audience knows before he speaks and gives them some kind of information. The speaker does not give the audience this information because he believes that they already know it.
* **Assumed knowledge** is whatever **a speaker assumes his audience knows** before he speaks and gives them some kind of information. The speaker does not give the audience this information because he believes that they already know it.
* When **the speaker does give the audience information**, he can do so in two ways:
* **Explicit information** is what the speaker states directly.
* **Implicit information** is what the speaker does not state directly because he expects his audience to be able to learn it from what he says.
When the speaker does give the audience information, he can do so in two ways. The speaker gives explicit information in what the he states directly. Implicit Information is what the speaker does not state directly because he expects his audience to be able to learn it from other things he says.
### Description
When someone speaks or writes, he has something specific that he wants people to know or do or think about. He normally states this directly. This is **explicit information**.
When someone speaks or writes, he has something specific that he wants people to know or do or think about. He normally states this directly. This is explicit information.
The speaker assumes that his audience already knows certain things that they will need to think about in order to understand this information. Normally he does not tell people these things, because they already know them. This is called **assumed knowledge**.
The speaker assumes that his audience already knows certain things that they will need to think about in order to understand this information. Normally he does not tell people these things, because they already know them. This is called assumed knowledge.
The speaker does not always directly state everything that he expects his audience to learn from what he says. **Implicit information** is information that he expects people to learn from what he says even though he does not state it directly.
The speaker does not always directly state everything that he expects his audience to learn from what he says. Implicit information is information that he expects people to learn from what he says even though he does not state it directly.
Often, the audience understands this **implicit information** by combining what they already know (**assumed knowledge**) with the **explicit information** that the speaker tells them directly.
Often, the audience understands this implicit information by combining what they already know (assumed knowledge) with the explicit information that the speaker tells them directly.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
#### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
All three kinds of information are part of the speaker’s message. If one of these kinds of information is missing, then the audience will not understand the message. Because the target translation is in a language that is very different than the biblical languages and is made for an audience that lives in a very different time and place than the people in the Bible, many times the **assumed knowledge** or the **implicit information** is missing from the message. In other words, modern readers do not know everything that the original speakers and hearers in the Bible knew. When these things are important for understanding the message, it is helpful if you include this information in the text or in a footnote.
All three kinds of information are part of the speaker’s message. If one of these kinds of information is missing, then the audience will not understand the message. Because the target translation is in a language that is very different from the biblical languages and is made for an audience that lives in a very different time and place than the people in the Bible, many times the assumed knowledge or the implicit information is missing from the message. In other words, modern readers do not know everything that the original speakers and hearers in the Bible knew. When these things are important for understanding the message, it is helpful if you include this information in the text or in a footnote.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
> Then a scribe came to him and said, “Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go.” Jesus said to him, “Foxes **have holes**, and the birds of the sky **have nests**, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.” (Matthew 8:20 ULT)
> Then a scribe came to him and said, “Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go.” Jesus said to him, “Foxes **have holes**, and the birds of the sky **have nests**, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.” (Matthew 8:19-20 ULT)
Jesus did not say what foxes and birds use holes and nests for, because he assumed that the scribe would have known that foxes sleep in holes in the ground and birds sleep in their nests. This is **assumed knowledge**.
Jesus did not directly say here “I am the Son of Man” but, if the scribe did not already know it, then that fact would be **implicit information** that he could learn because Jesus referred to himself that way. Also, Jesus did not state explicitly that he travelled a lot and did not have a house that he slept in every night. That is **implicit information** that the scribe could learn when Jesus said that he had nowhere to lay his head.
> Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! If the mighty deeds had been done in **Tyre and Sidon** which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the **day of judgment** than for you. (Matthew 11:21, 22 ULT)
> Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! If the mighty deeds had been done in **Tyre and Sidon** which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But I say to you, it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the **day of judgment** than for you. (Matthew 11:21-22 ULT)
Jesus assumed that the people he was speaking to knew that Tyre and Sidon were very wicked, and that the day of judgment is a time when God will judge every person. Jesus also knew that the people he was talking to believed that they were good and did not need to repent. Jesus did not need to tell them these things. This is all **assumed knowledge**.
An important piece of **implicit information** here is that the people he was speaking to would be judged more severely than the people of Tyre and Sidon would be judged **because** they did not repent.
> Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For **they do not wash their hands when they eat**. (Matthew 15:2 ULT)
> Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For **they do not wash their hands when they eat**. **bread**. (Matthew 15:2 ULT)
One of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating. People thought that in order to be righteous, they had to follow all the traditions of the elders. This was **assumed knowledge** that the Pharisees who were speaking to Jesus expected him to know. By saying this, they were accusing his disciples of not following the traditions, and thus not being righteous. This is **implicit information** that they wanted him to understand from what they said.
@ -41,34 +38,47 @@ One of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash th
If readers have enough assumed knowledge to be able to understand the message, along with any important implicit information that goes with the explicit information, then it is good to leave that knowledge unstated and leave the implicit information implicit. If the readers do not understand the message because one of these is missing for them, then follow these strategies:
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge as explicit information.
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not know certain implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
(1) If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge as explicit information.
(2) If readers cannot understand the message because they do not know certain implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge as explicit information.
> Jesus said to him, “Foxes **have holes**, and the birds of the sky **have nests**, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.” (Matthew 8:20 ULT) - The assumed knowledge was that the foxes slept in their holes and birds slept in their nests.
>> Jesus said to him, “Foxes **have holes to live in**, and the birds of the sky **have nests to live in**, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head and sleep.”
> it will be more tolerable for **Tyre and Sidon** at the day of judgment than for you (Matthew 11:22 ULT) - The assumed knowledge was that the people of Tyre and Sidon were very, very wicked. This can be stated explicitly.
>> …it will be more tolerable for **those cities Tyre and Sidon, whose people were very wicked**, at the day of judgment than for you.
>> or:
>> …it will be more tolerable for those **wicked cities Tyre and Sidon** at the day of judgment than for you.
> Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For **they do not wash their hands** when they eat. (Matthew 15:2 ULT) - The assumed knowledge was that one of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating, which they must do to be righteous. It was not to remove germs from their hands to avoid sickness, as a modern reader might think.
>> Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For **they do not go through the ceremonial handwashing ritual of righteousness** when they eat.
> Jesus said to him, “Foxes **have holes**, and the birds of the sky **have nests**, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.” (Matthew 8:20 ULT) 
The assumed knowledge was that the foxes slept in their holes and birds slept in their nests. 
> > Jesus said to him, “Foxes **have holes to live in**, and the birds of the sky **have nests to live in**, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head and sleep.”
> >
> >
>
> It will be more tolerable for **Tyre and Sidon** at the day of judgment than for you (Matthew 11:22 ULT)
The assumed knowledge was that the people of Tyre and Sidon were very, very wicked. This can be stated explicitly.
>
> > At the day of judgment, it will be more tolerable for **those cities of Tyre and Sidon, whose people were very wicked**, than it will be for you. or At the day of judgment, It will be more tolerable for those **wicked cities, Tyre and Sidon,**  than for you.
>
> Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For **they do not wash their hands** when they eat bread. (Matthew 15:2 ULT) 
The assumed knowledge was that one of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating, which they must do to be righteous. It was not to remove germs from their hands to avoid sickness, as a modern reader might think.
> > Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For **they do not go through the ceremonial handwashing ritual of righteousness** when they eat bread.
(2) If readers cannot understand the message because they do not know certain implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
> Then a scribe came to him and said, “Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go.” Jesus said to him, “Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.” (Matthew 8:19, 20 ULT) - The implicit information is that Jesus himself is the Son of Man. Other implicit information is that if the scribe wanted to follow Jesus, he would have to live like Jesus without a house.
>> Jesus said to him, “Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but **I, the Son of Man**, have **no home to rest in. If you want to follow me, you will live as I live**.”
> it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you (Matthew 11:22 ULT) - The implicit information is that God would not only judge the people; he would punish them. This can be made explicit.
>> At the day of judgment, God will **punish Tyre and Sidon**, cities whose people were very wicked, **less severely than he will punish you**.
>> or:
>> At the day of judgment, God will **punish you more severely** than Tyre and Sidon, cities whose people were very wicked.
> Then a scribe came to him and said, “Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go.” Jesus said to him, “Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.” (Matthew 8:19-20 ULT)
Modern readers may not know some of the things that the people in the Bible and the people who first read it knew. This can make it hard for them to understand what a speaker or writer says, and to learn things that the speaker left implicit. Translators may need to state some things explicitly in the translation that the original speaker or writer left unstated or implicit.
The implicit information is that Jesus himself is the Son of Man. Other implicit information is that if the scribe wanted to follow Jesus, then, like Jesus, he would have to live without a house.
> > Jesus said to him, “Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but **I, the Son of Man**, have **no home to rest in. If you want to follow me, you will live as I live**.”
>
> It will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you (Matthew 11:22 ULT) 
The implicit information is that God would not only judge the people; he would punish them. This can be made explicit.
> > At the day of judgment, God will **punish Tyre and Sidon**, cities whose people were very wicked, **less severely than he will punish you**.
> > or:
> > At the day of judgment, God will **punish you more severely** than Tyre and Sidon, cities whose people were very wicked.
Modern readers may not know some of the things that the people in the Bible and the people who first read it knew. This can make it hard for them to understand what a speaker or writer says, and to learn things that the speaker left implicit. Translators may need to state some things explicitly in the translation that the original speaker or writer left unstated or implicit.

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### Description
Some languages have ways of saying things that are natural for them but sound strange when translated into other languages. One of the reasons for this is that some languages say things explicitly that some other languages would leave as implicit information.
Some languages have ways of saying things that are natural for them but sound strange when translated into Other Languages. One of the reasons for this is that some languages say things explicitly that some Other Languages would leave as implicit information.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
#### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
If you translate all of the explicit information from the source language into the explicit information in the target language, it could sound foreign, unnatural, or perhaps even unintelligent if the target language would not make that information explicit. Instead, it is best to leave that kind of information implicit in the target language.
### Examples from the Bible
> **And** Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower **to burn it with fire**. (Judges 9:52 ESV)
> **Then** Abimelech came toward the tower and he fought against it, and approached as far as the entrance of the tower in order **to burn it with fire**. (Judges 9:52 ESV)
In Biblical Hebrew, it was normal to start most sentences with a conjunction such as “and” to show the connection between sentences. In English, it is not natural to do so, it is quite tiresome for the English reader, and it gives the impression that the author was uneducated. In English, it is best to leave the idea of connection between sentences implicit in most cases and not translate the conjunction explicitly.
In Biblical Hebrew, it is normal to start most sentences with a conjunction such as “and” to show the connection between sentences. In English, it is not natural to do so, it is quite tiresome for the English reader, and it gives the impression that the author is uneducated. In English, it is best to leave the idea of connection between sentences implicit in most cases and not translate the conjunction explicitly.
In Biblical Hebrew, it was normal to say that something was burned with fire. In English, the idea of fire is included in the action of burning, and so it is unnatural to state both ideas explicitly. It is enough to say that something was burned and leave the idea of fire implicit.
In Biblical Hebrew, it is normal to say that something was burned with fire. In English, the idea of fire is included in the action of burning, and so it is unnatural to state both ideas explicitly. It is enough to say that something was burned and leave the idea of fire implicit.
> The centurion **answered and said**, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof…” (Matthew 8:8 ULT)
> But the centurion **answered and said**, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof …” (Matthew 8:8a ULT)
In the biblical languages, it was normal to introduce direct speech with two verbs of speaking. One verb indicated the action, and the other introduced the words of the speaker. English speakers do not do this, so it is very unnatural and confusing to use two verbs. For the English speaker, the idea of speaking is included in the idea of answering. Using two verbs in English implies two separate speeches, rather than just one. So in English, it is better to use only one verb of speaking.
### Translation Strategies
1. If the explicit information of the source language sounds natural in the target language, then translate it as explicit information.
1. If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, leave the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
(1) If the explicit information of the source language sounds natural in the target language, then translate it as explicit information.
(2) If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, leave the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If the explicit information of the source language sounds natural in the target language, then translate it as explicit information.
* There would be no change to the text using this strategy, so no examples are given here.
* There would be no change to the text using this strategy, so no examples are given here.
(2) If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, leave the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
(2) If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, make the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
> And Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower to burn it with fire. (Judges 9:52 ESV)
>> Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower **to burn it**. (Or) **…to set it on fire**.
> Then Abimelech came toward the tower and he fought against it, and he approached as far as the entrance of the tower in order to burn it with fire. (Judges 9:52 ESV)
>
> > Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it, and he approached the door of the tower **to burn it**. (Or) … **to set it on fire**.
In English, it is clear that the action of this verse follows the action of the previous verse without the use of the connector “and” at the beginning, so it was omitted. Also, the words “with fire” were left out, because this information is communicated implicitly by the word “burn.” An alternative translation for “to burn it” is “to set it on fire.” It is not natural in English to use both “burn” and “fire,” so the English translator should choose only one of them. You can test if the readers understood the implicit information by asking, “How would the door burn?” If they knew it was by fire, then they have understood the implicit information. Or, if you chose the second option, you could ask, “What happens to a door that is set on fire?” If the readers answer, “It burns,” then they have understood the implicit information.
> The centurion answered and said, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof…” (Matthew 8:8 ULT)
>> The centurion **answered**, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof…”
> But the centurion answered and said, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof" (Matthew 8:8a ULT)
>
> > The centurion **answered**, “Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof”
In English, the information that the centurion answered by speaking is included in the verb “answered,” so the verb “said” can be left implicit. You can test if the readers understood the implicit information by asking, “How did the centurion answer?” If they knew it was by speaking, then they have understood the implicit information.
In English, the information that the centurion responded by speaking is included in the verb “answered,” so the verb “said” can be left implicit. You can test if the readers understood the implicit information by asking, “How did the centurion answer?” If they knew it was by speaking, then they have understood the implicit information.
> And he opened his mouth and taught them, saying, (Matthew 5:2 ULT)
>> **He began to** teach them, saying, (Or) He taught them, saying,
In English, it would be very strange to include the information that Jesus opened his mouth when he spoke. That information is included in the verbs “taught” and “saying,” so that phrase can be omitted and that information left implicit. However, “he opened his mouth” is an idiom that indicates the beginning of a speech, so that information may be included, or it may also be left implicit.
> He opened his mouth and taught them, saying, (Matthew 5:2 ULT)
>
> > **He began to** teach them, saying, (Or) He taught them, saying,
In English, it would be very strange to include the information that Jesus opened his mouth when he spoke. That information is included in the verbs “taught” and “saying,” so that phrase can be omitted and that information left implicit. However, “he opened his mouth” is an idiom that indicates the beginning of a speech, so that information may be included, or it may also be left implicit.

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### Examples from the Bible
> Out of the eater was something to eat;
> out of the strong was something sweet. (Judges 14:14 ULT)
> From the eater came forth food;
> and from the strong one came forth sweetness. (Judges 14:14 ULT)
This was a riddle. Samson purposely said this in a way that it would be hard for his enemies to know what it meant. Do not make it clear that the eater and the strong thing was a lion and that the sweet thing to eat was honey.
> Jesus said to them, “Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees.” The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, “It is because we took no bread.” … (Matthew 16:6,7 ULT)
> Jesus said to them, “Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees.” They reasoned among themselves saying, “It is because we did not take bread.” (Matthew 16:6-7 ULT)
Some possible implicit information here is that the disciples should beware of the false teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. But Jesus’ disciples did not understand this. They thought that Jesus was talking about real yeast and bread. So it would not be appropriate to state explicitly that the word “yeast” here refers to false teaching. The disciples did not understand what Jesus meant until they heard what Jesus said in Matthew 16:11.
> “How is it that you do not understand that I was not speaking to you about bread? Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees.” Then they understood that he was not telling them to beware of yeast in bread, but to beware of the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. (Matthew 16:11,12 ULT)
> “How is it that you do not understand that I was not speaking to you about bread? Beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees.” Then they understood that he was not telling them to beware of yeast in bread, but to beware of the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. (Matthew 16:11-12 ULT)
Only after Jesus explained that he was not talking about bread did they realize that he was talking about the false teaching of the Pharisees. Therefore it would be wrong to explicitly state the implicit information in Matthew 16:6.
Only after Jesus explained that he was not talking about bread did they realize that he was talking about the false teaching of the Pharisees. Therefore, it would be wrong to explicitly state the implicit information in Matthew 16:6.
### Translation Strategies

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In the Bible, sometimes the words “men,” “brothers” and “sons” refer only to men. At other times, those words include both men and women. In those places where the writer meant both men and women, you (the translator) need to translate it in a way that does not limit the meaning to men.
In the Bible, sometimes the words “men,” “brothers,” and “sons” refer only to men. At other times, those words include both men and women. In those places where the writer meant both men and women, you (the translator) need to translate it in a way that does not limit the meaning to men.
### Description
In some languages a word that normally refers to men can also be used in a more general way to refer to both men and women. For example, the Bible sometimes says ‘**brothers**‘ when it refers to both brothers and sisters.
In some languages a word that normally refers to men can also be used in a more general way to refer to both men and women. For example, the Bible sometimes says "brothers" when it refers to both brothers and sisters.
Also in some languages, the masculine pronouns “he” and “him” can be used in a more general way for any person if it is not important whether the person is a man or a woman. In the example below, the pronoun is “his,” but it is not limited to males.
> A wise child makes **his** father rejoice
> but a foolish child brings grief to **his** mother. (Proverbs 10:1 ULT)
> A wise son makes **his** father rejoice
> but a foolish son brings grief to **his** mother. (Proverbs 10:1 ULT)
#### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
* In some cultures words like “man,” “brother,” and “son” can only be used to refer to men. If those words are used in a translation in a more general way, people will think that what is being said does not apply to women.
* In some cultures, the masculine pronouns “he” and “him” can only refer to men. If a masculine pronoun is used, people will think that what is said does not apply to women.
@ -20,43 +19,46 @@ When a statement applies to both men and women, translate it in such a way that
### Examples from the Bible
> We want you to know, **brothers**, about the grace of God that has been given to the churches of Macedonia. (2 Corinthians 8:1 ULT)
> Now we want you to know, **brothers**, the grace of God that has been given to the churches of Macedonia. (2 Corinthians 8:1 ULT)
This verse is addressing the believers in Corinth, not only men, but **men and women**.
> Then said Jesus to his disciples, “If anyone wants to follow me, **he** must deny **himself**, take up **his** cross, and follow me.” (Matthew 16:24-26 ULT)
> Then said Jesus to his disciples, “If anyone wants to follow me, **he** must deny **himself**, take up **his** cross, and follow me.” (Matthew 16:24 ULT)
Jesus was not speaking only of men, but of **men and women**.
**Caution**: Sometimes masculine words are used specifically to refer to men. Do not use words that would lead people to think that they include women. The underlined words below are specifically about men.
**Caution**: Sometimes masculine words are used specifically to refer to men. Do not use words that would lead people to think that they include women. The words below are specifically about men.
> Moses said, ‘If a **man** dies, having no children, **his** **brother** must marry **his** wife and have a child for **his** **brother**.’ (Matthew 22:24 ULT)
> Moses said, ‘If **someone** dies, not having children, **his** **brother** must marry **his** wife and have children for **his** **brother**.’ (Matthew 22:24 ULT)
### Translation Strategies
If people would understand that that masculine words like “man,” “brother,” and “he” can include women, then consider using them. Otherwise, here are some ways for translating those words when they include women.
1. Use a noun that can be used for both men and women.
1. Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.
1. Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.
(1) Use a noun that can be used for both men and women.
(2) Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.
(3) Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Use nouns that can be used for both men and women.
> The wise **man** dies just like the fool dies. (Ecclesiastes 2:16 ULT)
> The wise **man** dies just like the fool dies. (Ecclesiastes 2:16b ULT)
>> “The wise **person** dies just like the fool dies.”
>> “Wise **people** die just like fools die.”
(2) Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.
> For we do not want you to be ignorant, **brothers**, about the troubles we had in Asia. (2 Corinthians 1:8) - Paul was writing this letter to both men and women.
>> “For we do not want you to be ignorant, **brothers and sisters**, about the troubles we had in Asia.” (2 Corinthians 1:8)
> For we do not want you to be uninformed, **brothers**, about the troubles that happened to us in Asia. (2 Corinthians 1:8) - Paul was writing this letter to both men and women.
>> “For we do not want you to be uninformed, **brothers and sisters**, about the troubles that happened to us in Asia.”
(3) Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.
> If anyone wants to follow me, he must deny himself, take up his cross, and follow me.” (Matthew 16:24 ULT) - English speakers can change the masculine singular pronouns, “he,” “himself,” and “his” to plural pronouns that do not mark gender, “they,” “themselves,” and “their” in order to show that it applies to all people, not just men.
>> “If **people** want to follow me, **they** must deny **themselves**, take up **their** cross, and follow me.”
> If anyone wants to follow me, he must deny himself, take up his cross, and follow me.” (Matthew 16:24 ULT) 
English speakers can change the masculine singular pronouns, “he,” “himself,” and “his” to plural pronouns that do not mark gender, “they,” “themselves,” and “their” in order to show that it applies to all people, not just men.
>
> > “If **people** want to follow me, **they** must deny **themselves**, take up **their** cross, and follow me.”

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@ -1,26 +1,24 @@
### Description
Generic noun phrases refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things. This happens frequently in proverbs, because proverbs tell about things that are true about people in general.
> Can **a man** walk on hot coals without scorching his feet?
> So is **the man who goes into his neighbor’s wife**;
> **the one who has relations with her** will not go unpunished. (Proverbs 6:28 ULT)
> So is **the man who goes in to his neighbor’s wife**;
> **the one who touches her** will not go unpunished. (Proverbs 6:28-29 ULT)
The underlined phrases above do not refer to a specific man. They refer to any man who does these things.
The phrases in bold above do not refer to a specific man. They refer to any man who does these things.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Different languages have different ways of showing that noun phrases refer to something in general. You (the translator) should refer to these general ideas in ways that are natural in your language.
### Examples from the Bible
> The **one who does what is right** is kept away from trouble and it comes upon **the wicked** instead. (Proverbs 11:8 ULT)
> The **righteous person** is kept away from trouble and it comes upon **the wicked** instead. (Proverbs 11:8 ULT)
The underlined phrases above do not refer to a specific person but to anyone who does what is right or anyone who is wicked.
The bold phrases above do not refer to a specific person but to anyone who does what is right or anyone who is wicked.
> People curse **the man who refuses to sell them grain**. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
> People curse **the man who refuses to sell grain**. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
This does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who refuses to sell grain.
> Yahweh gives favor to **a good man**, but he condemns **a man who makes evil plans**. (Proverbs 12:2 ULT)
@ -31,11 +29,11 @@ The phrase “a good man” does not refer to a particular man, but to any perso
If your language can use the same wording as in the ULT to refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things, consider using the same wording. If not, here are some strategies you might use.
1. Use the word “the” in the noun phrase.
1. Use the word “a” in the noun phrase.
1. Use the word “any,” as in “any person” or “anyone.”
1. Use the plural form, as in “people.”
1. Use any other way that is natural in your language.
(1) Use the word “the” in the noun phrase.
(2) Use the word “a” in the noun phrase.
(3) Use the word “any,” as in “any person” or “anyone.”
(4) Use the plural form, as in “people.”
(5) Use any other way that is natural in your language.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
@ -46,22 +44,22 @@ If your language can use the same wording as in the ULT to refer to people or th
(2) Use the word “a” in the noun phrase.
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell them grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **a man** who refuses to sell them grain”
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **a man** who refuses to sell grain”
(3) Use the word “any, as in “any person” or “anyone.”
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell them grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **any man** who refuses to sell them grain.”
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **any man** who refuses to sell grain.”
(4) Use the plural form, as in “people” (or in this sentence, “men”).
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell them grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **men** who refuse to sell them grain”
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **men** who refuse to sell grain”
(5) Use any other way that is natural in your language.
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell them grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **whoever** refuses to sell them grain.”
> People curse **the man** who refuses to sell grain. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>> “People curse **whoever** refuses to sell grain.”

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### Description
Different languages have different ways of determining whether to use the words “go” or “come” and whether to use the words “take” or “bring” when talking about motion. For example, when saying that they are approaching a person who has called them, English speakers say “I’m coming,” while Spanish speakers say “I’m going.” You will need to study the context in order to understand what is meant by the words “go” and “come” (and also “take” and “bring”), and then translate those words in a way that your readers will understand which direction people are moving in.
### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Different languages have different ways of talking about motion. The biblical languages or your source language may use the words “go” and “come” or “take” and “bring” differently than your language uses them. If these words are not translated in the way that is natural in your language, your readers may be confused about which direction people are moving.
@ -18,28 +16,28 @@ In some languages, this would lead people to think that Yahweh was in the ark.
Abraham was speaking to his servant. Abraham’s relatives lived far away from where he and his servant were standing and he wanted his servant to **go** to them, not **come** toward Abraham.
> When you have **come** to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it… (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULT)
> When you have **come** to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it … (Deuteronomy 17:14a ULT)
Moses is speaking to the people in the wilderness. They had not yet gone into the land that God was giving them. In some languages, it would make more sense to say, “When you have **gone** into the land…”
Moses is speaking to the people in the wilderness. They had not yet gone into the land that God was giving them. In some languages, it would make more sense to say, “When you have **gone** into the land …”
> Joseph and Mary **brought** him up to the temple in Jerusalem to present him to the Lord. (Luke 1:22 ULT)
> They **brought** him up to the temple in Jerusalem to present him to the Lord. (Luke 2:22b ULT)
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Joseph and Mary **took** or **carried** Jesus to the temple.
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that they**took** or **carried** Jesus to the temple.
> Behold, there came a man named Jairus, and he was one of the leaders of the synagogue. Jairus fell down at Jesus’ feet and implored him to **come** to his house, (Luke 8:41 ULT)
> Then see, there was a man whose name was Jairus, and he was a leader of the synagogue. And falling at the feet of Jesus, he begged him to come to his house. (Luke 8:41 ULT)
The man was not at his house when he spoke to Jesus. He wanted Jesus to **go** with him to his house.
> Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not **go** out in public for five months. (Luke 1:24 UST)
> “What did you go out into the desert to see? A reed shaken by the wind? (Luke 7:24b ULT)
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Elizabeth did not **come** out in public.
In some languages, it might make more sense to ask what did you come out to see.
### Translation Strategies
If the word used in the ULT would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other strategies.
1. Use the word “go,” “come,” “take,” or “bring” that would be natural in your language.
1. Use another word that expresses the right meaning.
(1) Use the word “go,” “come,” “take,” or “bring” that would be natural in your language.
(2) Use another word that expresses the right meaning.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
@ -48,8 +46,8 @@ If the word used in the ULT would be natural and give the right meaning in your
> But you will be free from my oath if you **come** to my relatives and they will not give her to you. (Genesis 24:41 ULT)
>> But you will be free from my oath if you **go** to my relatives and they will not give her to you.
> Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not **go** out in public for five months. (Luke 1:24 UST)
>> Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not **come** out in public for five months.
>“What did you go out into the desert to see? A reed shaken by the wind? (Luke 7:24b ULT)
>> “What did you come out into the desert to see? A reed shaken by the wind?
(2) Use another word that expresses the right meaning.
@ -59,6 +57,5 @@ If the word used in the ULT would be natural and give the right meaning in your
> Yahweh said to Noah, “**Come**, you and all your household, into the ark… (Genesis 7:1 ULT)
>> “Yahweh said to Noah, “**Enter**, you and all your household, into the ark…”
> Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not **go** out in public for five months. (Luke 1:24 UST)
>> Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not **appear** in public for five months.
> “What did you go out into the desert to see? A reed shaken by the wind? (Luke 7:24b ULT)
>> “What did you travel out into the desert to see? A reed shaken by the wind?

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Grammar has two main parts: words and structure. Structure involves how we put words together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Grammar has two main parts: words and structure. Structure involves how we put words together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Here is a brief overview of Grammar Topics  we will deal with in detail.
**Parts of Speech** - Every word in a language belongs to a category called a part of speech. (See [Parts of Speech](../figs-partsofspeech/01.md).)
@ -16,5 +15,4 @@ Grammar has two main parts: words and structure. Structure involves how we put w
* Quotations normally have two parts: Information about who said something and what the person said. (See [Quotations and Quote Margins](../writing-quotations/01.md).)
* Quotations can be either direct quotes or indirect quotes. (See [Direct and Indirect Quotations](../figs-quotations/01.md).)
* Quotes can have quotes within them. (See [Quotes within Quotes](../figs-quotesinquotes/01.md).)
* Quotes can be marked to make it easy for readers to understand who said what. (See [Quote Markings](../figs-quotemarks/01.md).)
* Quotes can be marked to make it easy for readers to understand who said what. (See [Quote Markings](../figs-quotemarks/01.md).)

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### Description
When a speaker expresses a single idea by using two words that are connected with “and,” it is called “hendiadys.” In hendiadys, the two words work together. Usually one of the words is the primary idea and the other word further describes the primary one.
When a speaker expresses a single idea by using two words that are connected with “and,” it is called a hendiadys. In a hendiadys, the two words work together. Usually one of the words is the primary idea and the other word further describes the primary one.
> …his own **kingdom and glory.** (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULT)
> … his own **kingdom and glory.** (1 Thessalonians 2:12b ULT)
Though “kingdom” and “glory” are both nouns, “glory” actually tells what kind of kingdom it is: it is a **kingdom of glory** or **a glorious kingdom**.
Two phrases connected by “and” can also be a hendiadys when they refer to a single person, thing, or event.
> while we look forward to receiving **the blessed hope and appearing of the glory** of **our great God and Savior Jesus Christ**. (Titus 2:13 ULT)
> while we look forward to receiving **the blessed hope and appearing of the glory** of **our great God and Savior Jesus Christ**. (Titus 2:13b ULT)
Titus 2:13 contains two hendiadys. “The blessed hope” and “appearing of the glory” refer to the same thing and serve to strengthen the idea that the return of Jesus Christ is greatly anticipated and wonderful. Also, “our great God” and “Savior Jesus Christ” refer to one person, not two.
Titus 2:13 contains two hendiadyses. “The blessed hope” and “appearing of the glory” refer to the same thing and serve to strengthen the idea that the return of Jesus Christ is greatly anticipated and wonderful. Also, “our great God” and “Savior Jesus Christ” refer to one person, not two.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
#### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
* Often hendiadys contains an abstract noun. Some languages may not have a noun with the same meaning.
* Many languages do not use hendiadys, so people may not understand that the second word is further describing the first one.
* Many languages do not use hendiadys, so people may not understand that only one person or thing is meant, not two.
* Often a hendiadys contains an abstract noun. Some languages may not have a noun with the same meaning.
* Many languages do not use the hendiadys, so people may not understand that the second word is further describing the first one.
* Many languages do not use the hendiadys, so people may not understand that only one person or thing is meant, not two.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
> …for I will give you **words and wisdom…** (Luke 21:15 ULT)
> For I will give you **a mouth and wisdom …** (Luke 21:15a ULT)
“Words” and “wisdom” are nouns, but in this figure of speech “wisdom” describes “words.”
“A mouth” and “wisdom” are nouns, but in this figure of speech “wisdom” describes what comes from the mouth.
> …if you are willing and obedient…(Isaiah 1:19 ULT)
> If you are willing and obedient … (Isaiah 1:19a ULT)
“Willing” and “obedient” are adjectives, but “willing” describes “obedient.”
@ -34,11 +32,11 @@ Titus 2:13 contains two hendiadys. “The blessed hope” and “appearing of th
If the hendiadys would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other options:
1. Substitute the describing noun with an adjective that means the same thing.
1. Substitute the describing noun with a phrase that means the same thing.
1. Substitute the describing adjective with an adverb that means the same thing.
1. Substitute other parts of speech that mean the same thing and show that one word or phrase describes the other.
2. If it is unclear that only one thing is meant, change the phrase so that this is clear.
(1) Substitute the describing noun with an adjective that means the same thing.
(2) Substitute the describing noun with a phrase that means the same thing.
(3) Substitute the describing adjective with an adverb that means the same thing.
(4) Substitute other parts of speech that mean the same thing and show that one word or phrase describes the other.
(5) If it is unclear that only one thing is meant, change the phrase so that this is clear.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
@ -47,25 +45,25 @@ If the hendiadys would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, c
> for I will give you **words and wisdom** (Luke 21:15 ULT)
>> for I will give you **wise words**
> that you should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you to **his own kingdom and glory**. (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULT)
>> that you should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you to **his own glorious kingdom**.
> Walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you into **his own kingdom and glory**. (1 Thessalonians 2:12b ULT)
>> You should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you to **his own glorious kingdom**.
(2) Substitute the describing noun with a phrase that means the same thing.
> for I will give you **words and wisdom**. (Luke 21:15 ULT)
>> for I will give you **words of wisdom**.
> that you should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you to **his own kingdom and glory**. (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULT)
>> that you should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you to **his own kingdom of glory**.
> You should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you into **his own kingdom and glory**. (1 Thessalonians 2:12b ULT)
>> You should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you to **his own kingdom of glory**.
(3) Substitute the describing adjective with an adverb that means the same thing.
> if you are **willing** and **obedient** (Isaiah 1:19 ULT)
>> if you are **willingly obedient**
> If you are willing and obedient … (Isaiah 1:19a ULT)
>> If you are **willingly obedient**
(4) Substitute other parts of speech that mean the same thing and show that one word or phrase describes the other.
> if you are **willing and obedient** (Isaiah 1:19 ULT)
> If you are willing and obedient … (Isaiah 1:19a ULT)
The adjective “obedient” can be substituted with the verb “obey.”
@ -73,8 +71,8 @@ The adjective “obedient” can be substituted with the verb “obey.”
(4) and (5) If it is unclear that only one thing is meant, change the phrase so that this is clear.
> while we look forward to receiving **the blessed hope and appearing of the glory** of **our great God and Savior Jesus Christ**. (Titus 2:13 ULT)
> We look forward to receiving **the blessed hope and appearing of the glory** of **our great God and Savior Jesus Christ**. (Titus 2:13b ULT)
The noun “glory” can be changed to the adjective “glorious” to make it clear that Jesus’ appearing is what we hope for. Also, “Jesus Christ” can be moved to the front of the phrase and “great God and Savior” put into a relative clause that describes the one person, Jesus Christ.
>> while we look forward to receiving **what we are longing for, the blessed and glorious appearing** of **Jesus Christ, who is our great God and Savior**.
>> We look forward to receiving **what we are longing for, the blessed and glorious appearing** of **Jesus Christ, who is our great God and Savior**.

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### Description
A speaker or writer can use exactly the same words to say something that he means as completely true, or as generally true, or as a hyperbole. This is why it can be hard to decide how to understand a statement. For example, the sentence below could mean three different things.
* It rains here every night.
1. The speaker means this as literally true if he means that it really does rain here every night.
1. The speaker means this as a **generalization** if he means that it rains here most nights.
1. The speaker means this as a **hyperbole** if he wants to say that it rains more than it actually does, usually in order to express a strong attitude toward the amount of rain, such as being annoyed or being happy about it.
1. The speaker means this as literally true if he means that it really does rain here every night.
2. The speaker means this as a **generalization** if he means that it rains here most nights.
3. The speaker means this as a **hyperbole** if he wants to say that it rains more than it actually does, usually in order to express a strong attitude toward the amount or frequency of rain, such as being annoyed or being happy about it.
**Hyperbole**: This is a figure of speech that uses **exaggeration**. A speaker deliberately describes something by an extreme or even unreal statement, usually to show his strong feeling or opinion about it. He expects people to understand that he is exaggerating.
**Hyperbole**: In hyperbole, a figure of speech that uses exaggeration, a speaker deliberately describes something with an extreme or even unreal statement, usually to show his strong feeling or opinion about it. He expects people to understand that he is exaggerating.
> They will not leave **one stone upon another** (Luke 19:44 ULT)
> They will not leave **stone upon stone in you.** (Luke 19:44b ULT)
* This is an exaggeration. It means that the enemies will completely destroy Jerusalem.
This is an exaggeration. It means that the enemies will completely destroy Jerusalem.
> Moses was educated in **all the learning of the Egyptians** (Acts 7:22 ULT)
> Moses was educated in **all the wisdom of the Egyptians.** (Acts 7:22a ULT)
* This hyperbole means that he had learned much of what the Egyptians knew and taught, and thus was as educated as any Egyptian.
This hyperbole means that he had learned everything an Egyptian education could offer.
**Generalization:** This is a statement that is true most of the time or in most situations that it could apply to.
> The one who ignores instruction **will have poverty and shame,**
> but **honor will come** to him who learns from correction. (Proverbs 13:18)
* These generalizations tell about what normally happens to people who ignore instruction and what normally happens to people who learn from correction. There may be some exceptions to these statements, but they are generally true.
These generalizations tell about what normally happens to people who ignore instruction and what normally happens to people who learn from correction. There may be some exceptions to these statements, but they are generally true.
> And when you pray, do not make useless repetitions as **the Gentiles do, for they think that they will be heard because of their many words.** (Matthew 6:7)
* This generalization tells about what Gentiles were known for doing. Many Gentiles did this. It does not matter if a few did not. The point was that the hearers should not join in this well-known practice.
This generalization tells about what Gentiles were known for doing. Many Gentiles did this. It does not matter if a few did not. The point was that the hearers should not join in this well-known practice.
Even though a hyperbole or a generalization may have a strong-sounding word like “all,” “always,” “none,” or “never,” it does not necessarliy mean **exactly** “all,” “always,” “none,” or “never.” It simply means “most,” “most of the time,” “hardly any,” or “rarely.”
#### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
1. Readers need to be able to understand whether or not a statement is literally true.
1. If readers realize that a statement is not literally true, they need to be able to understand whether it is a hyperbole, a generalization, or a lie. (Though the Bible is completely true, it tells about people who did not always tell the truth.)
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
#### Examples of Hyperbole
> If your hand causes you to stumble, **cut it off**. It is better for you to enter into life maimed… (Mark 9:43 ULT)
> If your hand causes you to stumble, **cut it off**. It is better for you to enter into life maimed … (Mark 9:43a ULT)
When Jesus said to cut off your hand, he meant that we should **do whatever extreme things** we need to do in order not to sin. He used this hyperbole to show how extremely important it is to try to stop sinning.
> The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel: thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and troops **as numerous as the sand on the seashore**. (1 Samuel 13:5 ULT)
> The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel with three thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and troops **as numerous as the sand on the seashore**. (1 Samuel 13:5a ULT)
The underlined phrase is an exaggeration for the purpose of expression the emotion that the Philistine army was overwhelming in number. It means that there were **many, many** soldiers in the Philistine army.
The bolded phrase is an exaggeration for the purpose of expressing the emotion that the Philistine army was overwhelming in number. It means that there were **many, many** soldiers in the Philistine army.
> But as his anointing teaches you about **all things** and is true and is not a lie, and even as it has taught you, remain in him. (1 John 2:27 ULT)
> But as his anointing teaches you **every****thing** and is true and is not a lie, and just as it has taught you, remain in him. (1 John 2:27b ULT)
This is a hyperbole. It expresses the assurance that God’s Spirit teaches us about **all things that we need to know**. God’s Spirit does not teach us about everything that it is possible to know.
> They found him, and they said to him, “**Everyone** is looking for you.” (Mark 1:37 ULT)
> When they found him, they also said to him, “**Everyone** is looking for you.” (Mark 1:37 ULT)
The disciples probably did not mean that everyone in the city was looking for Jesus, but that **many people** were looking for him, or that all of Jesus’ closest friends there were looking for him. This is an exaggeration for the purpose of expressing the emotion that they and many others were worried about him.
#### Examples of Generalization
> **Can anything good come out of Nazareth?** (John 1:46 ULT)
> Can **any good thing** come out of Nazareth? (John 1:46b ULT)
This rhetorical question is meant to express the generalization that there is nothing good in Nazareth. The people there had a reputation for being uneducated and not strictly religious. Of course, there were exceptions.
This rhetorical question is meant to express the generalization that there is nothing good in Nazareth. The people there had a reputation for being uneducated and not strictly religious. Of course, there were exceptions.
> One of them, of their own prophets, has said, “**Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, lazy bellies**.” (Titus 1:12 ULT)
This is a generalization that means that Cretans had a reputation to be like this because, in general, this is how Cretans behaved. It is possible that there were exceptions.
This is a generalization that means that Cretans had a reputation to be like this because, in general, this is how Cretans behaved. It is possible that there were exceptions.
> **A lazy hand causes poverty, but the hand of the diligent makes him rich**. (Proverbs 10:4 ULT)
> **A lazy hand causes a person to be poor, but the hand of the diligent person gains riches.** (Proverbs 10:4 ULT)
This is generally true, and reflects the experience of most people. It is possible that there are exceptions in some circumstances.
This is generally true, and it reflects the experience of most people. It is possible that there are exceptions in some circumstances.
#### Caution
Do not assume that something is an exaggeration just because it seems to be impossible. God does miraculous things.
> …they saw Jesus **walking on the sea** and coming near the boat… (John 6:19 ULT)
> They saw Jesus **walking on the sea** and coming near the boat. (John 6:19b ULT)
This is not hyperbole. Jesus really walked on the water. It is a literal statement.
@ -91,22 +89,22 @@ Yahweh is always righteous. This is a completely true statement.
If the hyperbole or generalization would be natural and people would understand it and not think that it is a lie, consider using it. If not, here are other options.
1. Express the meaning without the exaggeration.
1. For a generalization, show that it is a generalization by using a phrase like “in general” or “in most cases.”
1. For a hyperbole or a generalization, add a word like “many” or “almost” to show that the hyperbole or generalization is not meant to be exact.
1. For a hyperbole or a generalization that has a word like “all,” always,” “none,” or “never,” consider deleting that word.
(1) Express the meaning without the exaggeration.
(2) For a generalization, show that it is a generalization by using a phrase like “in general” or “in most cases.”
(3) For a hyperbole or a generalization, add a word like “many” or “almost” to show that the hyperbole or generalization is not meant to be exact.
(4) For a hyperbole or a generalization that has a word like “all,” always,” “none,” or “never,” consider deleting that word.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Express the meaning without the exaggeration.
> The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel: thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and troops **as numerous as the sand on the seashore**. (1 Samuel 13:5 ULT)
>> The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel: thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and **a great number of troops**.
> The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel: three thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and troops **as numerous as the sand on the seashore**. (1 Samuel 13:5a ULT)
>> The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel: three thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and **a great number of troops**.
(2) For a generalization, show that it is a generalization by using a phrase like “in general” or “in most cases.”
> The one who ignores instruction will have poverty and shame… (Proverbs 13:18 ULT)
> **The one who ignores instruction will have poverty and shame.** (Proverbs 13:18a ULT)
>> **In general,** the one who ignores instruction will have poverty and shame
> And when you pray, do not make useless repetitions as the Gentiles do, for they think that they will be heard because of their many words. (Matthew 6:7)
@ -114,13 +112,12 @@ If the hyperbole or generalization would be natural and people would understand
(3) For a hyperbole or a generalization, add a word like “many” or “almost” to show that the hyperbole or generalization is not meant to be exact.
> The **whole** country of Judea and **all** the people of Jerusalem went out to him. (Mark 1:5 ULT)
> The **whole** country of Judea and **all** the people of Jerusalem went out to him. (Mark 1:5a ULT)
>> **Almost all** the country of Judea and **almost all** the people of Jerusalem went out to him.”
>> or:
>> **Many** of the country of Judea and **many** of the people of Jerusalem went out to him.”
(4) For a hyperbole or a generalization that has a word like “all,” always,” “none,” or “never,” consider deleting that word.
> The **whole** country of Judea and **all** the people of Jerusalem went out to him. (Mark 1:5 ULT)
>> The country of Judea and the people of Jerusalem went out to him.
> The **whole** country of Judea and **all** the people of Jerusalem went out to him. (Mark 1:5a ULT)
>> The country of Judea and the people of Jerusalem went out to him.

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Consider these phrases: “If the sun stopped shining…;” “What if the sun stopped shining…;” “Suppose the sun stopped shining…;” and “If only the sun had not stopped shining.” We use such expressions to set up hypothetical situations, imagining what might have happened or what could happen in the future but probably will not. We also use them to express regret or wishes. These occur often in the Bible. You (the translator) need to translate them in a way that people will know that the event did not actually happen, and that they will understand why the event was imagined.
Consider these phrases: “If the sun stopped shining … ,” “What if the sun stopped shining … , ” “Suppose the sun stopped shining … , ” and “If only the sun had not stopped shining.” We use such expressions to set up hypothetical situations, imagining what might have happened or what could happen in the future but probably will not. We also use them to express regret or wishes. Hypothetical expressions occur often in the Bible. You (the translator) need to translate them in a way that people will know that the event did not actually happen and so that they will understand why the event was imagined.
### Description
Hypothetical situations are situations that are not real. They can be in the past, present, or future. Hypothetical situations in the past and present have not happened, and ones in the future are not expected to happen.
People sometimes tell about conditions and what would happen if those conditions were met, but they know that these things have not happened or probably will not happen. (The conditions are the phrase that start with “if.”)
People sometimes tell about conditions and what would happen if those conditions were met, but they know that these things have not happened or probably will not happen. (The conditions comprise the phrase that starts with “if.”)
* If he had lived to be one hundred years old, he would have seen his grandson’s grandson. (But he did not.)
* If he lived to be one hundred years old, he would still be alive today. (But he is not.)
@ -23,26 +22,26 @@ People sometimes express regrets about things that have not happened or that are
* If only he were here.
* If only he would come.
### Reason this Is a Translation Issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
* Translators need to recognize the different kinds of hypothetical situations in the Bible and understand that they are unreal.
* Translators need to know their own language’s ways of talking about different kinds of hypothetical situations.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
#### Hypothetical situations in the past
#### Hypothetical Situations in the Past
> “Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! **If the mighty deeds had been done** in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, **they would have repented** long ago in sackcloth and ashes.” (Matthew 11:21 ULT)
Here in Matthew 11:21 Jesus said that **if** the people living in the ancient cities of Tyre and Sidon had been able to see the miracles that he performed, they would have repented long ago. The people of Tyre and Sidon did not actually see his miracles and they did not repent. He said this to rebuke the people of Chorazin and Bethsaida who had seen his miracles and yet did not repent.
Here in Matthew 11:21, Jesus said that **if** the people living in the ancient cities of Tyre and Sidon had been able to see the miracles that he performed, they would have repented long ago. The people of Tyre and Sidon did not actually see his miracles, and they did not repent. He said this to rebuke the people of Chorazin and Bethsaida who had seen his miracles and yet did not repent.
> Martha then said to Jesus, “Lord, **if you had been here, my brother would not have died**.” (John 11:21 ULT)
Martha said this to express her wish that Jesus had come sooner, so that her brother would not have died. But Jesus did not come sooner, and her brother did die.
Martha said this to express her wish that Jesus would have come sooner so that her brother would not have died. But Jesus did not come sooner and her brother did die.
#### Hypothetical situations in the present
#### Hypothetical Situations in the Present
> Also, no man puts new wine into old wineskins. **If he did that, the new wine would burst the skins, and the wine would be spilled, and the wineskins would be destroyed**. (Luke 5:37 ULT)
> And no man puts new wine into old wineskins. **But if he did do that, the new wine would burst the wineskins, and it would be spilled out, and the wineskins would be destroyed**. (Luke 5:37 ULT)
Jesus told about what would happen if a person were to put new wine into old wineskins. But no one would do that. He used this imaginary situation as an example to show that there are times when it is unwise to mix new things with old things. He did this so that people could understand why his disciples were not fasting as people traditionally did.
@ -50,13 +49,13 @@ Jesus told about what would happen if a person were to put new wine into old win
Jesus asked the religious leaders what they would do on the Sabbath if one of their sheep fell into a hole. He was not saying that their sheep would fall into a hole. He used this imaginary situation to show them that they were wrong to judge him for healing people on the Sabbath.
#### Hypothetical situation in the future
#### Hypothetical Situation in the Future
> **Unless those days are shortened, no flesh would be saved**; but for the sake of the elect, those days will be shortened. (Matthew 24:22 ULT)
> **Unless those days are shortened, no flesh would be saved**. But for the sake of the elect, those days will be shortened. (Matthew 24:22 ULT)
Jesus was talking about a future time when very bad things would happen. He told what would happen if those days of trouble were to last a long time. He did this to show about how bad those days will be––so bad that if they lasted a long time, no one would be saved. But then he clarified that God will shorten those days of trouble, so that the elect (those he has chosen) will be saved.
Jesus was talking about a future time when very bad things would happen. He told what would happen if those days of trouble were to last a long time. He did this to show how bad those days will be––so bad that if they lasted a long time, no one would be saved. But then he clarified that God will shorten those days of trouble so that the elect (those he has chosen) will be saved.
#### Expressing emotion about a hypothetical situation
#### Expressing Emotion About a Hypothetical Situation
People sometimes talk about hypothetical situations in order to express regrets and wishes. Regrets are about the past and wishes are about the present and future.
@ -80,5 +79,4 @@ Find out how people speaking your language show:
Use your language’s ways of showing these kinds of things.
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_hypo.
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_hypo.

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An idiom is a figure of speech made up of a group of words that, as a whole, has a meaning that is different from what one would understand from the meanings of the individual words. Someone from outside of the culture usually cannot understand an idiom without someone inside the culture explaining its true meaning. Every language uses idioms. Some English examples are:
* You are pulling my leg. (This means, “You are telling me a lie.”)
* Do not push the envelope. (This means, “Do not take a matter to its extreme.”)
* This house is under water. (This means, “The debt owed for this house is greater than its actual value.”)
* We are painting the town red. (This means, “We are going around town tonight celebrating very intensely.”)
* You are pulling my leg. (This means, “You are teasing me by telling me something that is not true.”)
* Do not push the envelope. (This means, “Do not take a matter to its extreme.”)
* This house is under water. (This means, “The debt owed for this house is greater than its actual value.”)
* We are painting the town red. (This means, “We are going around town tonight celebrating very intensely.”)
### Description
An idiom is a phrase that has a special meaning to the people of the language or culture who use it. Its meaning is different than what a person would understand from the meanings of the individual words that form the phrase.
> he resolutely **set his face** to go to Jerusalem. (Luke 9:51 ULT)
> he **set his face** to go to Jerusalem. (Luke 9:51b ULT)
The words “set his face” is an idiom that means “decided.”
Sometimes people may be able to understand an idiom from another culture, but it might sound like a strange way to express the meaning.
> I am not worthy that you should **enter under my roof**. (Luke 7:6 ULT)
> I am not worthy that you would **come under my roof**. (Luke 7:6b ULT)
The phrase “enter under my roof” is an idiom that means “enter my house.”
The phrase “come under my roof” is an idiom that means “enter my house.”
> Let these words **go deeply into your ears**. (Luke 9:44 ULT)
> Put these words **into your ears**. (Luke 9:44a ULT)
This idiom means “Listen carefully and remember what I say.”
**Purpose**: An idiom is created in a culture probably somewhat by accident when someone describes something in an unusual way. But, when that unusual way communicates the message powerfully and people understand it clearly, other people start to use it. After a while, it becomes a normal way of talking in that language.
**Purpose**: An idiom is probably created in a culture somewhat by accident when someone describes something in an unusual way. But, when that unusual way communicates the message powerfully and people understand it clearly, other people start to use it. After a while, it becomes a normal way of talking in that language.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
#### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
* People can easily misunderstand idioms in the original languages of the Bible if they do not know the cultures that produced the Bible.
* People can easily misunderstand idioms that are in the source language Bibles if they do not know the cultures that made those translations.
* It is useless to translate idioms literally (according to the meaning of each word) when the target language audience will not understand what they mean.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
> Then all Israel came to David at Hebron and said, “Look, we are your **flesh and bone**.” (1 Chronicles 11:1 ULT)
This means, “We and you belong to the same race, the same family.”
> the children of Israel went out **with a high hand**. (Exodus 14:8 ASV)
> The children of Israel went out **with a high hand**. (Exodus 14:8b ASV)
This means, “The Israelites went out defiantly.”
> the one who **lifts up my head** (Psalm 3:3 ULT)
> the one who **lifts up my head** (Psalm 3:3b ULT)
This means, “the one who helps me.”
@ -50,27 +50,26 @@ This means, “the one who helps me.”
If the idiom would be clearly understood in your language, consider using it. If not, here are some other options.
1. Translate the meaning plainly without using an idiom.
1. Use a different idiom that people use in your own language that has the same meaning.
(1) Translate the meaning plainly without using an idiom.
(2) Use a different idiom that people use in your own language that has the same meaning.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Translate the meaning plainly without using an idiom.
> Then all Israel came to David at Hebron and said, “Look, we are your **flesh and bone**.” ( 1 Chronicles 11:1 ULT)
>> …Look, we all **belong to the same nation**.
>> Look, we all **belong to the same nation**.
> he **resolutely set his face** to go to Jerusalem. (Luke 9:51 ULT)
> Then he **set his face** to go to Jerusalem. (Luke 9:51b ULT)
>> He started to travel to Jerusalem, **determined to reach it**.
> I am not worthy that you should enter **under my roof**. (Luke 7:6 ULT)
> I am not worthy that you would come **under my roof**. (Luke 7:6b ULT)
>> I am not worthy that you should enter **my house**.
(2) Use an idiom that people use in your own language that has the same meaning.
> Let these words **go deeply into your ears** (Luke 9:44 ULT)
> Put these words **into your ears** (Luke 9:44a ULT)
>> **Be all ears** when I say these words to you.
> ”My **eyes grow dim** from grief (Psalm 6:7 ULT)
>> I am crying my **eyes out**
> ”My **eyes grow dim** from grief (Psalm 6:7a ULT)
>> I am crying my **eyes out**

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### Description
Imperative sentences are mainly used to express a desire or requirement that someone do something. In the Bible, sometimes imperative sentences have other uses.
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Some languages would not use an imperative sentence for some of the functions that they are used for in the Bible.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
Speakers often use imperative sentences to tell or ask their listeners to do something. In Genesis 26, God spoke to Isaac and told him not to go to Egypt but to live where God would tell him to live.
@ -20,63 +18,68 @@ Sometimes imperative sentences in the Bible have other uses.
God can make things happen by commanding that they happen. Jesus healed a man by commanding that the man be healed. The man could not do anything to obey the command, but Jesus caused him to be healed by commanding it. (In this context, the command “Be clean” means to “be healed” so that others around would know that it was safe to touch the man again.)
> “I am willing. **Be clean**.” Immediately he was cleansed of his leprosy. (Matthew 8:3 ULT)
> “I am willing. **Be clean**.” Immediately he was cleansed of his leprosy. (Matthew 8:3b ULT)
In Genesis 1, God commanded that there should be light, and by commanding it, he caused it to exist. Some languages, such as the Hebrew of the Bible, have commands that are in the third person. English does not do that, and so it must turn the third-person command into a general, second-person command, as in the ULT:
In Genesis 1, God commanded that there should be light, and by commanding it, he caused it to exist. Some languages, such as the Hebrew of the Bible, have commands that are in the third person. English does not do that, and so it must turn the third-person command into a general second-person command, as in the ULT:
> God said, “**Let there be** light,” and there was light. (Genesis 1:3 ULT)
Languages that have third-person commands can follow the original Hebrew, which translates into English as something like, “light must be.”
Languages that have third-person commands can follow the original Hebrew, which translates into English as something like “light must be.”
#### Imperatives that function as blessings
In the Bible, God blesses people by using imperatives. This indicates what his will is for them.
> God blessed them and said to them, “**Be fruitful**, and **multiply**. **Fill** the earth, and **subdue** it. **Have dominion** over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.”
> God blessed them and said to them, “**Be fruitful**, and **multiply**. **Fill** the earth, and **subdue** it. **Have dominion** over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.” (Genesis 1:28 ULT)
#### Imperatives that function as conditions
An imperative sentence can also be used to tell the **condition** under which something will happen. The proverbs mainly tell about life and things that often happen. The purpose of Proverbs 4:6 below is not primarily to give a command, but to teach what people can expect to happen **if** they love wisdom.
> …**do not abandon** wisdom and she will watch over you;
>**Do not abandon** wisdom and she will watch over you;
> **love** her and she will keep you safe. (Proverbs 4:6 ULT)
The purpose of Proverbs 22:6 below is teach what people can expect to happen if they teach their children the way they should go.
The purpose of Proverbs 22:6, below, is to teach what people can expect to happen if they teach their children the way they should go.
> **Teach** a child the way he should go,
> and when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction. (Proverbs 22:6 ULT)
### Translation Strategies
1. If people would not use an imperative sentence for one of the functions in the Bible, try using a statement instead.
1. If people would not understand that a sentence is used to cause something to happen, add a connecting word like “so” to show that what happened was a result of what was said.
1. If people would not use a command as a condition, translate it as a statement with the words “if” and “then.”
(1) If people would not use an imperative sentence for one of the functions in the Bible, try using a statement instead.
(2) If people would not understand that a sentence is used to cause something to happen, add a connecting word like “so” to show that what happened was a result of what was said.
(3) If people would not use a command as a condition, translate it as a statement with the words “if” and “then.”
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If people would not use an imperative sentence for one of the functions in the Bible, try using a statement instead.
> Be clean. (Matthew 8:3 ULT)
>> “You are now clean.”
>> “I now cleanse you.”
> God said, “**Let there be** light,” and there was light. (Genesis 1:3 ULT)
>> God said, “**There is now light** “ and there was light.
> God blessed them and said to them, “**Be fruitful**, and **multiply**. **Fill** the earth, and **subdue** it. **Have dominion** over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.” (Genesis 1:28 ULT)
>> God blessed them and said to them, “**My will for you is that you be fruitful**, and **multiply**. **Fill** the earth, and **subdue** it. **I want you to have dominion** over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.”
> **Be clean**. (Matthew 8:3b ULT)
>
> > “You are now clean.”
> > “I now cleanse you.”
>
> God said, “**Let there be** light,” and there was light. (Genesis 1:3 ULT)
>
> > God said, “**There is now light** “ and there was light.
>
> God blessed them and said to them, “**Be fruitful**, and **multiply**. **Fill** the earth, and **subdue** it. **Have dominion** over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.” (Genesis 1:28 ULT)
>
> > God blessed them and said to them, “**My will for you is that you be fruitful**, and **multiply**. **Fill** the earth, and **subdue** it. **I want you to have dominion** over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.”
(2) If people would not understand that a sentence is used to cause something to happen, add a connecting word like “so” to show that what happened was a result of what was said.
> God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. (Genesis 1:3 ULT)
>> God said, ‘Let there be light,’ **so** there was light.
>> God said, “Light must be;” **as a result**, there was light.
> God said, “**Let there be** light,” and there was light. (Genesis 1:3 ULT)
>
> > God said, ‘Let there be light,’ **so** there was light.
> > God said, “Light must be;” **as a result**, there was light.
(3) If people would not use a command as a condition, translate it as a statement with the words “if” and “then.”
> Teach a child the way he should go,
> and when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction. (Proverbs 22:6 ULT)
> Teach a child the way he should go, and when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction. (Proverbs 22:6 ULT)
Translated as:
> “**If** you teach a child the way he should go,
> **then** when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction.”
> **then** when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction.”

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### Description
Some languages have more than one form of “we”: an **inclusive** form that means “I and you” and an **exclusive** form that means “I and someone else but not you.” The inclusive form includes the person being spoken to and possibly others. This is also true for “us,” “our,” “ours,” and “ourselves.” Some languages have inclusive forms and exclusive forms for each of these.
Some languages have more than one form of “we”: an inclusive form that means “I and you” and an exclusive form that means “I and someone else but not you.” The inclusive form includes the person being spoken to and possibly others. This is also true for “us,” “our,” “ours,” and “ourselves.” Some languages have inclusive forms and exclusive forms for each of these.
See the pictures. The people on the right are the people that the speaker is talking to. The yellow highlight shows who the inclusive “we” and the exclusive “we” refer to.
@ -10,28 +8,29 @@ See the pictures. The people on the right are the people that the speaker is tal
![](https://cdn.door43.org/ta/jpg/vocabulary/we_us_exclusive.jpg)
### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. Like English, these languages do not have separate exclusive and inclusive forms for “we.” Translators whose language has separate exclusive and inclusive forms of “we” will need to understand what the speaker meant so they can decide which form of “we” to use.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
#### Inclusive
> …the shepherds said one to each other, “Let **us** now go to Bethlehem, and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has made known to **us**.” (Luke 2:15 ULT)
> The shepherds said one to each other, “Let **us** indeed go over as far as Bethlehem, and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has made known to **us**.” (Luke 2:15b ULT)
The shepherds were speaking to one another. When they said “us,” they were including the people they were speaking to - one another.
The shepherds were speaking to one another. When they said “us,” they were including the people they were speaking to, one another.
> Now it happened on one of those days that Jesus and his disciples entered into a boat, and he said to them, “Let **us** go over to the other side of the lake.” Then they set sail. (Luke 8:22 ULT)
> And it happened that on one of those days, both he and his disciples got into a boat, and he said to them, “Let **us** go over to the other side of the lake.” Then they set sail. (Luke 8:22 ULT)
When Jesus said “us,” he was referring to himself and to the disciples he was speaking to, so this would be the inclusive form.
#### Exclusive
> **we** have seen, and bear witness, and declare to you the eternal life, which was with the Father, and was manifested to **us** (1 John 1:2 ULT)
> **We** have seen it, and **we** bear witness to it. **We** are announcing to you the eternal life, which was with the Father, and which has been made known to **us**.
(1 John 1:2b ULT)
John is telling people who have not seen Jesus what he and the other apostles have seen. So languages that have exclusive forms of “we” and “us” would use the exclusive forms in this verse.
> They said, “**We** have no more than five loaves of bread and two fish, unless **we** went and bought food for all this crowd of people.” (Luke 9:13 ULT)
> They said, “There are not more than five loaves of bread and two fish with **us**—unless **we** go and buy food for all these people.” (Luke 9:13 ULT)
In the first clause, the disciples are telling Jesus how much food they have among them, so this “we” could be the inclusive form or the exclusive form. In the second clause, the disciples are talking about some of them going to buy food, so that “we” would be the exclusive form, since Jesus would not go to buy food.
In the first clause, the disciples are telling Jesus how much food they have among them, so this “us” could be the inclusive form or the exclusive form. In the second clause, the disciples are talking about some of them going to buy food, so that “we” would be the exclusive form, since Jesus would not go to buy food.

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Some languages can use a word or phrase with a noun to give information about that noun or to remind people of something about it.
* Mary gave some of the food to her sister, **who was very thankful**.
* Mary gave some of the food to her sister, **who was very thankful**.
The phrase “who was very thankful” immediately follows the word “sister” and informs us about how Mary’s sister responded when Mary gave her the food. In this case it does not distinguish this sister from another sister that Mary might have. It simply gives added information about that sister.
@ -9,67 +8,73 @@ The phrase “who was very thankful” immediately follows the word “sister”
Some languages can use a word or phrase with a noun to give information about that noun or to remind people of something about it.
* Mary gave some of the food to her sister, **who was very thankful**.
Mary gave some of the food to her sister, **who was very thankful**.
The phrase “who was very thankful” immediately follows the word “sister” and informs us about how Mary’s sister responded when Mary gave her the food. In this case it does not distinguish this sister from another sister that Mary might have.
**Reason people use these phrases**: People often present either reminders or new information in a weak way. They do this when they want their listener to give most of his attention to something else they are saying. In the example above, the speaker wants most attention to be given to what Mary did, NOT to how her sister responded.
**Reason this is a translation Issue:** Languages have different ways of signaling the parts of communication that the listener should pay most attention to.
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
#### Translation Principles
Languages have different ways of signaling the parts of communication that the listener should pay most attention to.
* If your language does not use phrases with a noun for new information or a reminder, you may need to put that information or reminder in a different part of the sentence.
* Try to present it in a weak way.
* Ask yourself: In our language, how do we express information in a strong way, and how do we express it in a weaker way?
### Translation Principles
### Examples from the Bible
* If your language does not use phrases with a noun for new information or a reminder, you may need to put that information or reminder in a different part of the sentence.
* Try to present it in a weak way.
* Ask yourself: In our language, how do we express information in a strong way, and how do we express it in a weaker way?
> The name of the third river is Tigris, **which flows east of Asshur**. (Genesis 2:14 ULT)
### Examples From the Bible
There is only one Tigris River. The phrase “which flows east of Asshur” gives more information about where the Tigris River was. This would have been helpful to the original audience, because they knew were Asshur was.
> The name of the third river is Tigris, **which flows east of Asshur**. (Genesis 2:14a ULT)
> I will wipe away mankind **whom I have created** from the surface of the earth. (Genesis 6:7 ULT)
There is only one Tigris River. The phrase “which flows east of Asshur” gives more information about where the Tigris River was. This would have been helpful to the original audience because they knew were Asshur was.
> So Yahweh said, "I will wipe away mankind **whom I have created** from the surface of the earth." (Genesis 6:7a ULT)
The phrase “whom I have created” is a reminder of the relationship between God and mankind. It is the reason God had the right to wipe away mankind.
> I will bring an end to the **worthless** idols of Memphis. (Ezekiel 30:13 ULT)
> I will bring an end to the **worthless** idols of Memphis. (Ezekiel 30:13b ULT)
All idols are worthless. This is why God said he would destroy them.
> …for your **righteous** judgments are good. (Psalm 119:39 ULT)
> … for your **righteous** judgments are good. (Psalm 119:39b ULT)
All of God’s judgments are righteous. This is why the person who wrote this psalm said that they are good.
### Translation Strategies
If people would understand the purpose of a phrase with a noun, then consider keeping the phrase and the noun together. Otherwise, here are other strategies of showing that the phrase is used to inform or remind.
1. Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose.
1. Use one of your language’s ways for expressing information in a weak way. It may be by adding a small word, or by changing the way the voice sounds. Sometimes changes in the voice can be shown with punctuation marks, such as parentheses or commas.
(1) Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose. (2) Use one of your language’s ways for expressing information in a weak way. It may be by adding a small word or by changing the way the voice sounds. Sometimes changes in the voice can be shown with punctuation marks such as parentheses or commas.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose.
> I hate those who serve **worthless** idols (Psalm 31:6 ULT) - By saying “worthless idols,” David was commenting about all idols and giving his reason for hating those who serve them. He was not distinguishing worthless idols from valuable idols.
>> “**Because** idols are worthless, I hate those who serve them.”
> …for your **righteous** judgments are good. (Psalm 119:39 ULT)
>> …for your judgments are good **because** they are righteous.
> Can Sarah, **who is ninety years old**, bear a son? (Genesis 17:17-18 ULT) - The phrase “who is ninety years old” is a reminder of Sarah’s age. It tells why Abraham was asking the question. He did not expect that a woman who was that old could bear a child.
>> “Can Sarah bear a son **even when** she is ninety years old?”
> I will call on Yahweh, **who is worthy to be praised**… (2 Samuel 22:4 ULT) - There is only one Yahweh. The phrase “who is worthy to be praised” gives a reason for calling on Yahweh.
>> “I will call on Yahweh, **because** he is worthy to be praised”
> I hate those who serve **worthless** idols. (Psalm 31:6a ULT)   
> By saying “worthless idols,” David was commenting about all idols and giving his reason for hating those who serve them. He was not distinguishing worthless idols from valuable idols.“
>
> > **Because** idols are worthless, I hate those who serve them.”
>
> … for your **righteous** judgments are good. (Psalm 119:39b ULT)
>
> > … for your judgments are good **because** they are righteous.
>
> How can Sarah, **who is 90 years old**, bear a son? (Genesis 17:17b ULT) 
>  
> The phrase “who is 90 years old” is a reminder of Sarah’s age. It tells why Abraham was asking the question. He did not expect that a woman who was that old could bear a child.“
>
> > Can Sarah bear a son **even when** she is 90 years old?”
>
> I will call on Yahweh, **who is worthy to be praised.** (2 Samuel 22:4a ULT)   
There is only one Yahweh. The phrase “who is worthy to be praised” gives a reason for calling on Yahweh.
> > “I will call on Yahweh **because** he is worthy to be praised.”
(2) Use one of your language’s ways for expressing information in a weak way.
> The name of the third river is Tigris, **which flows east of Asshur**. (Genesis 2:14 ULT)
>> “The name of the third river is Tigris. **It flows east of Asshur**.
> The name of the third river is Tigris, **which flows east of Asshur**. (Genesis 2:14a ULT)
>
> > “The name of the third river is Tigris. **It flows east of Asshur**.

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### Description
Different languages arrange the parts of the sentence in different ways. In English, a sentence normally has the subject first, then the verb, then the object, then other modifiers, like this:
Different languages arrange the parts of the sentence in different ways. In English, a sentence normally has the subject first, then the verb, then the object, then other modifiers, like this:  Peter painted his house yesterday.
* **Peter painted his house yesterday.**
Many other languages normally put these things in a different order such as: Painted yesterday Peter his house.
Many other languages normally put these things in a different order, such as:
Although all languages have a normal order for parts of a sentence, this order can change depending on what information the speaker or writer considers to be the most important.
* **Painted yesterday Peter his house.**
 Suppose that someone is answering the question, “What did Peter paint yesterday?” The person asking the question already knows all of the information in our sentence above except for the object, “his house.” Therefore, that becomes the most important part of the information, and a person answering in English might say "His house is what Peter painted (yesterday)."
Although all languages have a normal order for parts of a sentence, this order can change depending on what information the speaker or writer considers to be the most important. Suppose that someone is answering the question, “What did Peter paint yesterday?” The person asking the question already knows all of the information in our sentence above except for the object: “his house.” Therefore, that becomes the most important part of the information, and a person answering in English might say:
This puts the most important information first, which is normal for English. Many Other Languages would normally put the most important information last. In the flow of a text, the most important information is usually what the writer considers to be new information for the reader. In some languages the new information comes first, and in others it comes last.
* **His house is what Peter painted (yesterday).**
### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
This puts the most important information first, which is normal for English. Many other languages would normally put the most important information last. In the flow of a text, the most important information is usually what the writer considers to be new information for the reader. In some languages the new information comes first, and in others it comes last.
* Different languages arrange the parts of a sentence in different ways. If you (the translator) copy the order of the parts of a sentence from the source, it may not make sense in your language.
* Different languages put important or new information in different places in the sentence. If you keep the important or new information in the same place that it had in the source language, it may be confusing or give the wrong message in your language.
### Reasons this is a translation Issue
* Different languages arrange the parts of a sentence in different ways. If you (the translator) copy the order of the parts of a sentence from the source, it may not make sense in your language.
* Different languages put important or new information in different places in the sentence. If you keep the important or new information in the same place that it had in the source language, it may be confusing or give the wrong message in your language.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
> They all ate until they were satisfied. (Mark 6:42 ULT)
The parts of this sentence were in a different order in the original Greek source language. They were like this:
* **And they ate all and they were satisfied.**
The parts of this sentence were in a different order in the original Greek source language. They were like this: And they ate all and they were satisfied.
In English, this means that the people ate everything. But the next verse says that they took up twelve baskets full of leftover pieces of food. In order for this to not be so confusing, the translators of the ULT put the parts of the sentence in the right order for English.
> Now the day was about to come to an end, and the twelve came to him and said, “Send the crowd away that they may go into the surrounding villages and countryside to find lodging and food, because we are here in an isolated place.” (Luke 9:12 ULT)
> And the day began to end, and the twelve came to him and said, “Send the crowd away so that, going into the surrounding villages and countryside, they may find lodging and food, because we are here in an desolate place.” (Luke 9:12 ULT)
In this verse, what the disciples say to Jesus puts the important information first - that he should send the crowd away. But in languages that put the important information last, people would understand that the reason that they give - being in an isolated place - is the most important part of their message to Jesus. They might then think that the disciples are afraid of the spirits in that place, and that sending the people to buy food is a way to protect them from the spirits. That is the wrong message.
In this verse, what the disciples say to Jesus puts the important information first, that he should send the crowd away. In languages that put the important information last, people would understand that the reason that they gave, being in an isolated place, is the most important part of their message to Jesus. They might then think that the disciples are afraid of the spirits in that place, and that sending the people to buy food is a way to protect them from the spirits. That is the wrong message.
> Woe to you, when all men speak well of you, for that is how their ancestors treated the false prophets. (Luke 6:26 ULT)
> Woe to you when all men speak well of you, for their fathers treated the false prophets in the same way. (Luke 6:26 ULT)
In this verse, the most important part of the information is first - that “woe” is coming on the people for what they are doing. The reason that supports that warning comes last. This could be confusing for people who expect the important information to come last.
In this verse, the most important part of the information is first, that “woe” is coming on the people for what they are doing. The reason that supports that warning comes last. This could be confusing for people who expect the important information to come last.
### Translation Strategies
1. Study how your language arranges the parts of a sentence, and use that order in your translation.
1. Study where your language puts the new or important information, and rearrange the order of information so that it follows the way it is done in your language.
(1) Study how your language arranges the parts of a sentence, and use that order in your translation.
(2) Study where your language puts the new or important information, and rearrange the order of information so that it follows the way it is done in your language.
### Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Study how your language arranges the parts of a sentence, and use that order in your translation.
* **And he went out from there and came to the hometown his, and they followed him the disciples his. (Mark 6:1)**
This is the verse in the original Greek order: 
This is the verse in the original Greek order. The ULT has put this into the normal order for English:
> And he went out from there and came into his hometown, and his disciples followed him. (Mark 6:1 ULT)
> And he went out from there and came to the hometown his, and they followed him the disciples his. (Mark 6:1)
(2) Study where your language puts the new or important information, and rearrange the order of information so that it follows the way it is done in your language.
The ULT has put this into the normal order for English:
> Now the day was about to come to an end, and the twelve came to him and said, “Send the crowd away that they may go into the surrounding villages and countryside to find lodging and food, because we are here in an isolated place.” (Luke 9:12 ULT)
> Now Jesus went out from there and came to his hometown, and his disciples followed him. (Mark 6:1 ULT)
If your language puts the important information last, you can change the order of the verse:
(2) Study where your language puts the new or important information and rearrange the order of information so that it follows the way it is done in your language.
* Now the day was about to come to an end, and the twelve came to him and said, “Because we are here in an isolated place, send the crowd away that they may go into the surrounding villages and countryside to find lodging and food.”
> And the day began to end, and the twelve came and said to him, “Send the crowd away so that, going into the surrounding villages and countryside, they may find lodging and food, because we are here in a desolate place.” (Luke 9:12 ULT)
If your language puts the important information last, you can change the order of the verse.
> > Now the day was about to come to an end, and the twelve came to him and said, “Because we are here in an desolate place, send the crowd away that they may go into the surrounding villages and countryside to find lodging and food.”
>
>
>
> Woe to you, when all men speak well of you, for that is how their ancestors treated the false prophets. (Luke 6:26 ULT)
If your language puts the important information last, you can change the order of the verse:
* When all men speak well of you, which is just as people’s ancestors treated the false prophets, then woe to you!
If your language puts the important information last, you can change the order of the verse.
>> When all men speak well of you, which is just as people’s ancestors treated the false prophets, then woe to you!

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Figures of speech have special meanings that are not the same as the meanings of their individual words. There are different kinds of figures of speech. This page lists and defines some of those that are used in the Bible. In-depth study will follow
Figures of speech have special meanings that are not the same as the meanings of their individual words. There are different kinds of figures of speech. This page lists and defines some of those that are used in the Bible.
### Definition
### Description
Figures of speech are ways of saying things that use words in non-literal ways. That is, the meaning of a figure of speech is not the same as the more direct meaning of its words. In order to translate the meaning, you need to be able to recognize figures of speech and know what the figure of speech means in the source language. Then you can choose either a figure of speech or a direct way to communicate that same meaning in the target language.
@ -41,5 +40,4 @@ Listed below are different types of Figures of Speech. If you would like additio
* **[Simile](../figs-simile/01.md)** - A simile is a comparison of two things that are not normally thought to be similar. It focuses on a particular trait that the two items have in common, and it includes words such as “like,” “as,” or “than” to make the comparison explicit.
* **[Synecdoche](../figs-synecdoche/01.md)** - Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which (1) the name of a part of something is used to refer to the whole thing, or (2) the name of a whole thing is used to refer to just one part of it.
* **[Synecdoche](../figs-synecdoche/01.md)** - Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which (1) the name of a part of something is used to refer to the whole thing, or (2) the name of a whole thing is used to refer to just one part of it.

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Irony is a figure of speech in which the sense that the speaker intends to communicate is actually the opposite of the literal meaning of the words. Sometimes a person does this by using someone else’s words, but in a way that communicates that he does not agree with them. People do this to emphasize how different something is from what it should be, or how someone else’s belief about something is wrong or foolish. It is often humorous.
> Jesus answered them, “People who are in good health do not need a physician, only people who are sick need one. I did not come to call righteous people to repentance, but to call sinners to repentance.” (Luke 5:31-32 ULT)
> Then Jesus answered and said to them, “People who are well do not have need of a physician, but those who have sickness. I did not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance.” (Luke 5:31-32 ULT)
When Jesus spoke of “righteous people,” he was not referring to people who were truly righteous, but to people who wrongly believed that they were righteous. By using irony, Jesus communicated that they were wrong to think that they were better than others and did not need to repent.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
* If someone does not realize that a speaker is using irony, he will think that the speaker actually believes what he is saying. He will understand the passage to mean the opposite of what it was intended to mean.
If someone does not realize that a speaker is using irony, he will think that the speaker actually believes what he is saying. He will understand the passage to mean the opposite of what it was intended to mean.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
> **How well you reject the commandment of God** so you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9 ULT)
> **How well you reject the commandment of God** so that you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9b ULT)
Here Jesus praises the Pharisees for doing something that is obviously wrong. Through irony, he communicates the opposite of praise: He communicates that the Pharisees, who take great pride in keeping the commandments, are so far from God that they do not even recognize that their traditions are breaking God’s commandments. The use of irony makes the Pharisee’s sin more obvious and startling.
@ -23,12 +23,11 @@ People worshiped idols as if their idols had knowledge or power, and Yahweh was
> Can you lead light and darkness to their places of work?
> Can you find the way back to their houses for them?
> **Undoubtedly you know, for you were born then;**
> “**the number of your days is so large!** “ (Job 38:20, 21 ULT)
> **Undoubtedly you know, for you were born then;** “**the number of your days is so large!** “ (Job 38:20-21 ULT)
Job thought that he was wise. Yahweh used irony to show Job that he was not so wise. The two underlined phrases above are irony. They emphasize the opposite of what they say, because they are so obviously false. They emphasize that Job could not possibly answer God’s questions about the creation of light because Job was not born until many, many years later.
Job thought that he was wise. Yahweh used irony to show Job that he was not so wise. The two phrases in bold above are irony. They emphasize the opposite of what they say, because they are so obviously false. They emphasize that Job could not possibly answer God’s questions about the creation of light because Job was not born until many, many years later.
> Already you have all you could want! Already you have become rich! You began to reign—and that quite apart from us! (1 Corinthians 4:8 ULT)
> Already you are satisfied! Already you have become rich! **You began to reign** apart from us, and I wish you really did reign, so that we also might reign with you.(1 Corinthians 4:8 ULT)
The Corinthians considered themselves to be very wise, self-sufficient, and not in need of any instruction from the Apostle Paul. Paul used irony, speaking as if he agreed with them, to show how proudly they were acting and how far from being wise they really were.
@ -36,35 +35,35 @@ The Corinthians considered themselves to be very wise, self-sufficient, and not
If the irony would be understood correctly in your language, translate it as it is stated. If not, here are some other strategies.
1. Translate it in a way that shows that the speaker is saying what someone else believes.
1. Translate the actual, intended meaning of the statement of irony. The actual meaning of the irony is **not** found in the literal words of the speaker, but instead the true meaning is found in the opposite of the literal meaning of the speaker’s words.
(1) Translate it in a way that shows that the speaker is saying what someone else believes.
(2) The irony is **not** found in the literal words of the speaker, but instead the true meaning is found in the opposite of the literal meaning of the speaker’s words.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Translate it in a way that shows that the speaker is saying what someone else believes.
> **How well you reject the commandment of God** so you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9 ULT)
>> **You think that you are doing well when you reject God’s commandment** so you may keep your tradition!
>> **You act like it is good to reject God’s commandment** so you may keep your tradition!
> I did not come to call **righteous people** to repentance, but to call sinners to repentance. (Luke 5:32 ULT)
>> I did not come to call **people who think that they are righteous** to repentance, but to call sinners to repentance.
> **How well you reject the commandment of God** so that you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9a ULT)
>
> > **You think that you are doing well when you reject God’s commandment** so you may keep your tradition!
> > **You act like it is good to reject God’s commandment** so you may keep your tradition!
>
> I did not come to call **the righteous**, but sinners to repentance.” (Luke 5:32 ULT)
>
> > I did not come to call **people who think that they are righteous** to repentance, but to call sinners to repentance.
(2) Translate the actual, intended meaning of the statement of irony.
> **How well you reject the commandment of God** so you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9 ULT)
>> **You are doing a terrible thing when you reject the commandment of God** so you may keep your tradition!
> ”Present your case,” says Yahweh; “present your best arguments for your idols,” says the King of Jacob. “**Let them bring us their own arguments; have them come forward and declare to us what will happen**, so we may know these things well. **Have them tell us of earlier predictive declarations, so we can reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled**.” (Isaiah 41:21-22 ULT)
>> ‘Present your case,’ says Yahweh; ‘present your best arguments for your idols,’ says the King of Jacob. Your idols **cannot bring us their own arguments or come forward to declare to us what will happen** so we may know these things well. We cannot hear them because **they cannot speak** to tell us their earlier predictive declarations, so we cannot reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled.
> **How well you reject the commandment of God** so that you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9a ULT)
>
> > **You are doing a terrible thing when you reject the commandment of God** so you may keep your tradition!
>
> ”Present your case,” says Yahweh; “present your best arguments for your idols,” says the King of Jacob. “**Let them bring us their own arguments; have them come forward and declare to us what will happen**, so we may know these things well. **Have them tell us of earlier predictive declarations, so we can reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled**.” (Isaiah 41:21-22 ULT)
>
> > ‘Present your case,’ says Yahweh; ‘present your best arguments for your idols,’ says the King of Jacob. Your idols **cannot bring us their own arguments or come forward to declare to us what will happen** so we may know these things well. We cannot hear them because **they cannot speak** to tell us their earlier predictive declarations, so we cannot reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled.
>
> Can you lead light and darkness to their places of work?
> Can you find the way back to their houses for them?
> **Undoubtedly you know, for you were born then;**
> **the number of your days is so large!**“ (Job 38:20, 21 ULT)
>> Can you lead light and darkness to their places of work? Can you find the way back to their houses for them? **You act like you know how light and darkness were created, as if you were there; as if you are as old as creation, but you are not**!
> **the number of your days is so large!**“ (Job 38:20-21 ULT)
>
> > Can you lead light and darkness to their places of work? Can you find the way back to their houses for them? **You act like you know how light and darkness were created, as if you were there; as if you are as old as creation, but you are not**!

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# Definition
A litany is a figure of speech in which the various components of a thing are listed in a series of very similar statements.
# Description
The speaker does this to indicate that what he is saying should be understood as comprehensive and without exceptions.
A litany is a figure of speech in which the various components of a thing are listed in a series of very similar statements. The speaker does this to indicate that what he is saying should be understood as comprehensive and without exceptions.
# Reason this is a translation issue
# Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Many languages do not use litanies, and readers could be confused by it. They may wonder why the speaker seems to be saying the same thing over and over again.
Many languages do not use litanies, and readers could be confused by them. They may wonder why the speaker seems to be saying the same thing over and over again.
## Examples from the Bible
## Examples From the Bible
> Though they dig into Sheol,
there my hand will take them.
Though they climb up to heaven,
there I will bring them down.
Though they hide on the top of Carmel,
there I will search and take them.
Though they are hidden from my sight in the bottom of the sea,
there will I give orders to the serpent, and it will bite them.
Though they go into captivity, driven by their enemies before them,
there will I give orders to the sword, and it will kill them. (Amos 9:2–4 ULT)
> Though they dig into Sheol, there my hand will take them. Though they climb up to heaven, there I will bring them down. Though they hide on the top of Carmel, there I will search and take them. Though they are hidden from my sight in the bottom of the sea, there will I give orders to the serpent, and it will bite them. Though they go into captivity, driven by their enemies before them, there will I give orders to the sword, and it will kill them. (Amos 9:2-4 ULT)
In this passage Yahweh is telling the people of Israel that when he punishes them, none of them will escape.
In this passage Yahweh is telling the people of Israel that when he punishes them, none of them will escape.
> But you should not have looked on the day of your brother, on the day of his misfortune.
And you should not have rejoiced over the sons of Judah in the day of their perishing.
And you should not have made your mouth great in a day of distress.
You should not have entered the gate of my people in the day of their calamity.
Yes, you! You should not have looked on his evil in the day of his calamity.
And you women should not have looted his wealth in the day of his calamity.
And you should not have stood at the crossroads to cut down his fugitives.
And you should not have delivered up his survivors in a day of distress. (Obadiah 1:12–14)
> But you should not have looked on the day of your brother, on the day of his misfortune. And you should not have rejoiced over the sons of Judah in the day of their perishing. And you should not have made your mouth great in a day of distress. You should not have entered the gate of my people in the day of their calamity. Yes, you! You should not have looked on his evil in the day of his calamity. And you women should not have looted his wealth in the day of his calamity. And you should not have stood at the crossroads to cut down his fugitives. And you should not have delivered up his survivors in a day of distress. (Obadiah 1:12–14)
In this passage Yahweh is telling the people of Edom all the things they should not have done when the people of Judah were conquered by the Babylonians.
# Translation Strategies
1. A good strategy for showing how a litany conveys its meaning may be to format it on the page in a certain way. Often in the Bible there will be a general statement at the beginning or end of a litany that sums up its overall meaning. You can format that statement and the litany in a way appropriate to your language that will show that by listing all of the components of a thing, the litany is making a comprehensive statement equivalent to this general statement.
(1). A good strategy for showing how a litany conveys its meaning may be to format it on the page in a certain way. Often in the Bible there will be a general statement at the beginning or end of a litany that sums up its overall meaning. You can format that statement and the litany in a way appropriate to your language that will show that by listing all of the components of a thing, the litany is making a comprehensive statement equivalent to this general statement.
2. Also in terms of formatting, if each sentence in the litany has two parts, you can decide whether it would be clearer to put both of these parts on the same line or to put them on separate lines.
(2) Also in terms of formatting, if each sentence in the litany has two parts, you can decide whether it would be clearer to put both of these parts on the same line or to put them on separate lines.
3. You can eliminate words like “and,” “but,” and “or” at the beginning of sentences so that it will be clearer that the component parts of a thing are all being listed in a row.
(3) You can eliminate words like “and,” “but,” and “or” at the beginning of sentences so that it will be clearer that the component parts of a thing are all being listed in a row.
# Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. The verse before the litany explains its overall meaning. That verse can be placed as an introduction. In English, a colon would indicate that what follows elaborates on this meaning. The accusation in the middle of the litany can be placed on a line of its own so that readers will see that the sentence that follows is like all the others in the litany.
(1) The verse before the litany explains its overall meaning. That verse can be placed as an introduction. In English, a colon would indicate that what follows elaborates on this meaning. The accusation in the middle of the litany can be placed on a line of its own so that readers will see that the sentence that follows is like all the others in the litany.
> You did nothing to help the Israelites when strangers carried away their wealth.
They conquered all the cities of Judah, and they even plundered Jerusalem.
And you were just as bad as those foreigners, because you did nothing to help:
> > You did nothing to help the Israelites when strangers carried away their wealth. They conquered all the cities of Judah, and they even plundered Jerusalem. And you were just as bad as those foreigners, because you did nothing to help:
>
> You should not have looked on the day of your brother, on the day of his misfortune.
You should not have rejoiced over the sons of Judah in the day of their perishing.
You should not have made your mouth great in a day of distress.
You should not have entered the gate of my people in the day of their calamity.
Yes, you!
You should not have looked on his evil in the day of his calamity.
You women should not have looted his wealth in the day of his calamity.
You should not have stood at the crossroads to cut down his fugitives.
You should not have delivered up his survivors in a day of distress. (Obadiah 1:11–14)
> You should not have looked on the day of your brother, on the day of his misfortune. You should not have rejoiced over the sons of Judah in the day of their perishing. You should not have made your mouth great in a day of distress. You should not have entered the gate of my people in the day of their calamity. Yes, you! You should not have looked on his evil in the day of his calamity. You women should not have looted his wealth in the day of his calamity. You should not have stood at the crossroads to cut down his fugitives. You should not have delivered up his survivors in a day of distress. (Obadiah 1:12-14)
2. The sentence before the litany explains its overall meaning. That sentence can be placed as an introduction. In English, a colon would indicate that what follows elaborates on this meaning. Because the first three sentences are shorter, they can be presented on a single line, so that the way the litany develops may be recognized more clearly.
(2) The sentence before the litany explains its overall meaning. That sentence can be placed as an introduction. In English, a colon would indicate that what follows elaborates on this meaning. Because the first three sentences are shorter, they can be presented on a single line, so that the way the litany develops may be recognized more clearly.
> Not one of them will get away, not one of them will escape:
>
> Though they dig into Sheol, there my hand will take them.
Though they climb up to heaven, there I will bring them down.
Though they hide on the top of Carmel, there I will search and take them.
Though they are hidden from my sight in the bottom of the sea,
there will I give orders to the serpent, and it will bite them.
Though they go into captivity, driven by their enemies before them,
there will I give orders to the sword, and it will kill them. (Amos 9:1b–4 ULT)
> Though they dig into Sheol, there my hand will take them. Though they climb up to heaven, there I will bring them down. Though they hide on the top of Carmel, there I will search and take them. Though they are hidden from my sight in the bottom of the sea, there will I give orders to the serpent, and it will bite them. Though they go into captivity, driven by their enemies before them, there will I give orders to the sword, and it will kill them. (Amos 9:1b–4 ULT)

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### Description
Litotes is a figure of speech in which the speaker expresses a strong positive meaning by using two negative words or a negative word with a word that means the opposite of the meaning he intends. A few examples of negative words are “no,” “not,” “none,” and “never.” The opposite of “good” is “bad.” Someone could say that something is “not bad” to mean that it is extremely good.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This Is a Translation Issue
Some languages do not use litotes. People who speak those languages might not understand that a statement using litotes actually strengthens the positive meaning. Instead, they might think that it weakens or even cancels the positive meaning.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
> For you yourselves know, brothers, our coming to you was **not useless**, (1 Thessalonians 2:1 ULT)
> For you yourselves know, brothers, that our coming to you was **not useless**, (1 Thessalonians 2:1 ULT)
By using litotes, Paul emphasized that his visit with them was **very** useful.
> Now when it became day, there was **no small excitement** among the soldiers, regarding what had happened to Peter. (Acts 12:18 ULT)
> Now when it became day, there was **no small disturbance** among the soldiers over what therefore had happened to Peter. (Acts 12:18 ULT)
By using litotes, Luke emphasized that there was a **lot** of excitement or anxiety among the soldiers about what happened to Peter. (Peter had been in prison, and even though there were soldiers guarding him, he escaped when an angel let him out. So they were very agitated.)
> And you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah,
> But you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah,
> are **not the least** among the leaders of Judah,
> for from you will come a ruler
> who will shepherd my people Israel. (Matthew 2:6 ULT)
@ -29,16 +27,15 @@ By using litotes, the prophet emphasized that Bethlehem would be a **very import
If the litotes would be understood correctly, consider using it.
1. If the meaning with the negative would not be clear, give the **positive** meaning in a strong way.
(1) If the meaning with the negative would not be clear, give the **positive** meaning in a strong way.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If the meaning with the negative would not be clear, give the **positive** meaning in a strong way.
> For you yourselves know, brothers, our coming to you was **not useless**. (1 Thessalonians 2:1 ULT)
> For you yourselves know, brothers, that our coming to you was **not useless**. (1 Thessalonians 2:1 ULT)
>> “For you yourselves know, brothers, our visit to you **did much good**.”
> Now when it became day, there was **no small excitement** among the soldiers, regarding what had happened to Peter. (Acts 12:18 ULT)
> Now when it became day, there was **no small disturbance** among the soldiers over what therefore had happened to Peter. (Acts 12:18 ULT)
>> “Now when it became day, there was **great excitement** among the soldiers, regarding what had happened to Peter.”
>> “Now when it became day, the soldiers were **very concerned** because of what had happened to Peter.”
>> “Now when it became day, the soldiers were **very concerned** because of what had happened to Peter.”

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### Definition
Merism is a figure of speech in which a person refers to something by speaking of two extreme parts of it. By referring to the extreme parts, the speaker intends to include also everything in between those parts.
> “I am the Alpha and the Omega,” says the Lord God, “the one who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty.” (Revelation 1:8, ULT)
> I am the **Alpha and the Omega**, **the First and the Last**, **the Beginning and the End**. (Revelation 22:13, ULT)
> “I am **the alpha and the omega**,” says the Lord God, “the one who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty.” (Revelation 1:8 ULT)
>
> I am **the alpha and the omega**, **the first and the last**, **the beginning and the end**. (Revelation 22:13, ULT)
**Alpha and Omega** are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. This is a merism that includes everything from the beginning to the end. It means eternal.
> I praise you, Father, Lord of **heaven and earth…**, (Matthew 11:25 ULT)
**Alpha and omega** are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. This is a merism that includes everything from the beginning to the end. It means eternal.
> … I praise you, Father, Lord of **heaven and earth** …, (Matthew 11:25b ULT)
**Heaven and earth** is a merism that includes everything that exists.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
#### Reason This is a Translation Issue
Some languages do not use merism. The readers of those languages may think that the phrase only applies to the items mentioned. They may not realize that it refers to those two things and everything in between.
### Examples from the Bible
### Examples From the Bible
> **From the rising of the sun to its setting**, Yahweh’s name should be praised. (Psalm 113:3 ULT)
This underlined phrase is a merism because it speaks of the east and the west and everywhere in between. It means “everywhere.”
This bolded phrase is a merism because it speaks of the east and the west and everywhere in between. It means “everywhere.”
> He will bless those who honor him, both **young and old**. (Psalm 115:13)
The underlined phrase is merism because it speaks of, old people and young people and everyone in between. It means “everyone.”
The bolded phrase is merism because it speaks of old people and young people and everyone in between. It means “everyone.”
### Translation Strategies
If the merism would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other options:
1. Identify what the merism refers to without mentioning the parts.
1. Identify what the merism refers to and include the parts.
(1) Identify what the merism refers to without mentioning the parts.
(2) Identify what the merism refers to and include the parts.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) Identify what the merism refers to without mentioning the parts.
> I praise you, Father, Lord of **heaven and earth**… (Matthew 11:25 ULT)
>> I praise you, Father, Lord of **everything**…
> I praise you, Father, Lord of **heaven and earth**. (Matthew 11:25b ULT)
>> I praise you, Father, Lord of **everything**.
> **From the rising of the sun to its setting**, Yahweh’s name should be praised. (Psalm 113:3 ULT)
>> **In all places**, people should praise Yahweh’s name.
(2) Identify what the merism refers to and include the parts.
> I praise you, Father, Lord of **heaven and earth**. (Matthew 11:25 ULT)
> I praise you, Father, Lord of **heaven and earth**. (Matthew 11:25b ULT)
>> I praise you, Father, Lord of **everything, including both what is in heaven and what is on earth**.
> He will bless those who honor him, both **young and old**. (Psalm 115:13 ULT)

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### Description
A **metaphor** is a figure of speech in which someone speaks of one thing as if it were a different thing because he wants people to think about how those two things are alike.
A metaphor is a figure of speech in which someone speaks of one thing as if it were a different thing because he wants people to think about how those two things are alike.
For example, someone might say:
* The girl I love is a red rose.
For example, someone might say, "The girl I love is a red rose."
A girl and a rose are very different things, but the speaker considers that they are alike in some way. The hearer’s task is to understand in what way they are alike.
### The Parts of a Metaphor
The example above shows us that a metaphor has three parts. In this metaphor, the speaker is talking about “the girl I love.” This is the **Topic**. The speaker wants the hearer to think about what is similar between her and “a red rose.” The red rose is the **Image** to which he compares the girl. Most probably, he wants the hearer to consider that they are both **beautiful**. This is the **Idea** that the girl and the rose both share, and so we may also call it the **Point of Comparison**.
The example above shows us that a metaphor has three parts. In this metaphor, the speaker is talking about “the girl I love.” This is the **Topic**. The speaker wants the hearer to think about what is similar between her and “a red rose.” The red rose is the **Image** to which he compares the girl. Most probably, he wants the hearer to consider that they are both beautiful. This is the **Idea** that the girl and the rose both share, and so we may also call it the **Point of Comparison**.
Every metaphor has three parts:
* The **Topic**, the item being immediately discussed by the writer/speaker.
* The **Topic**, the item being immediately discussed by the writer/speaker.
* The **Image**, the physical item (object, event, action, etc.) which the speaker uses to describe the topic.
* The **Idea**, the abstract concept or quality that the physical **Image** brings to the mind of the hearer when he thinks of how the **Image** and the **Topic** are similar. Often, the **Idea** of a metaphor is not explicitly stated in the Bible, but it is only implied from the context. The hearer or reader usually needs to think of the **Idea** himself.
* The **Image**, the physical item (object, event, action, etc.) which the speaker uses to describe the topic.
Using these terms, we can say that a metaphor is a figure of speech that uses a physical **Image** to apply an abstract **Idea** to the speaker’s **Topic**.
* The **Idea**, the abstract concept or quality that the physical **Image** brings to the mind of the hearer when he thinks of how the **Image** and the **Topic** are similar. Often, the **Idea** of a metaphor is not explicitly stated in the Bible, but it is only implied from the context. The hearer or reader usually needs to think of the **Idea** himself.
Usually, a writer or speaker uses a metaphor in order to express something about a **Topic**, with at least one **Point of Comparison** (**Idea**) between the **Topic** and the **Image**. Often in metaphors, the **Topic** and the **Image** are explicitly stated, but the **Idea** is only implied. The writer/speaker often uses a metaphor in order to invite the readers/listeners to think about the similarity between the **Topic** and the **Image** and to figure out for themselves the **Idea** that is being communicated.
Using these terms, we can say that a **metaphor** is a figure of speech that uses a physical **Image** to apply an abstract **Idea** to the speaker’s **Topic**.
Usually, a writer or speaker uses a metaphor in order to express something about a **Topic**, with at least one **Point of Comparison** (**Idea**) between the **Topic** and the **Image**. Often in metaphors, the **Topic** and the **Image** are explicitly stated, but the **Idea** is only implied. The writer/speaker often uses a metaphor in order to invite the readers/listeners to think about the similarity between the **Topic** and the **Image** and to figure out for themselves the **Idea** that is being communicated.
Speakers often use metaphors in order to strengthen their message, to make their language more vivid, to express their feelings better, to say something that is hard to say in any other way, or to help people remember their message.
Speakers often use metaphors in order to strengthen their message, to make their language more vivid, to express their feelings better, to say something that is hard to say in any other way, or to help people remember their message.
Sometimes speakers use metaphors that are very common in their language. However, sometimes speakers use metaphors that are uncommon, and even some metaphors that are unique. When a metaphor has become very common in a language, often it becomes a “passive” metaphor, in contrast to uncommon metaphors, which we describe as being “active.” Passive metaphors and active metaphors each present a different kind of translation problem, which we will discuss below.
@ -36,16 +34,16 @@ A passive metaphor is a metaphor that has been used so much in the language that
#### Patterned Pairs of Concepts acting as Metaphors
Many ways of metaphorical speaking depend on pairs of concepts, where one underlying concept frequently stands for a different underlying concept. For example, in English, the direction UP (the Image) often represents the concepts of MORE or BETTER (the Idea). Because of this pair of underlying concepts, we can make sentences such as “The price of gasoline is going *up*,” “A *highly* intelligent man,” and also the opposite kind of idea: “The temperature is going *down*,” and “I am feeling very *low*.”
Many ways of metaphorical speaking depend on pairs of concepts, where one underlying concept frequently stands for a different underlying concept. For example, in English, the direction "up" (the Image) often represents the concepts of "more" or "better" (the Idea). Because of this pair of underlying concepts, we can make sentences such as “The price of gasoline is going **up**,” “A **highly** intelligent man,” and also the opposite kind of idea: “The temperature is going **dow****n**,” and “I am feeling very **low**.”
Patterned pairs of concepts are constantly used for metaphorical purposes in the world’s languages, because they serve as convenient ways to organize thought. In general, people like to speak of abstract qualities (such as power, presence, emotions, and moral qualities) as if they were body parts, or as if they were objects that could be seen or held, or as if they were events that could be watched as they happened.
Patterned pairs of concepts are constantly used for metaphorical purposes in the world’s languages because they serve as convenient ways to organize thought. In general, people like to speak of abstract qualities (such as power, presence, emotions, and moral qualities) as if they were body parts, or as if they were objects that could be seen or held, or as if they were events that could be watched as they happened.
When these metaphors are used in normal ways, it is rare that the speaker and audience regard them as figurative speech. Examples of metaphors in English that go unrecognized are:
* “Turn the heat *up*.” MORE is spoken of as UP.
* “Let us *go ahead* with our debate.” DOING WHAT WAS PLANNED is spoken of as WALKING or ADVANCING.
* “You *defend* your theory well.” ARGUMENT is spoken of as WAR.
* “A *flow* of words” WORDS are spoken of as LIQUIDS.
* “Turn the heat **up**.” More is spoken of as up.
* “Let us **go ahead** with our debate.” Doing what was planned is spoken of as walking or advancing.
* “You **defend** your theory well.” Argument is spoken of as war.
* “A **flow** of words” Words are spoken of as liquids.
English speakers do not view these as metaphorical expressions or figures of speech, so it would be wrong to translate them into other languages in a way that would lead people to pay special attention to them as figurative speech. For a description of important patterns of this kind of metaphor in biblical languages, please see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) and the pages it will direct you to.
@ -53,21 +51,21 @@ When translating something that is a passive metaphor into another language, do
### Active Metaphors
These are metaphors that people recognize as one concept standing for another concept, or one thing for another thing. They make people think about how the one thing is like the other thing, because in most ways the two things are very different. People also easily recognize these metaphors as giving strength and unusual qualities to the message. For this reason, people pay attention to these metaphors. For example,
These are metaphors that people recognize as one concept standing for another concept, or one thing for another thing. Metaphors make people think about how the one thing is like the other thing, because in most ways the two things are very different. People also easily recognize these metaphors as giving strength and unusual qualities to the message. For this reason, people pay attention to these metaphors. For example,
> For you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing in its wings. (Malachi 4:2 ULT)
> But for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing in its wings. (Malachi 4:2a ULT)
Here God speaks about his salvation as if it were the sun rising in order to shine its rays on the people whom he loves. He also speaks of the sun’s rays as if they were wings. Also, he speaks of these wings as if they were bringing medicine that would heal his people. Here is another example:
Here, God speaks about his salvation as if it were the sun rising in order to shine its rays on the people whom he loves. He also speaks of the sun’s rays as if they were wings. Also, he speaks of these wings as if they were bringing medicine that would heal his people. Here is another example:
> Jesus said, “Go and tell that fox…,” (Luke 13:32 ULT)
> And he said to them, “Go and tell that fox …” (Luke 13:32a ULT)
Here, “that fox” refers to King Herod. The people listening to Jesus certainly understood that Jesus was intending for them to apply certain characteristics of a fox to Herod. They probably understood that Jesus intended to communicate that Herod was evil, either in a cunning way or as someone who was destructive, murderous, or who took things that did not belong to him, or all of these.
Active metaphors are the metaphors that need special care to translate correctly. To do so, you need to understand the parts of a metaphor and how they work together to produce meaning.
Active metaphors require the translator's special care to make a correct translation. To do so, you need to understand the parts of a metaphor and how they work together to produce meaning.
> Jesus said to them, “I am the bread of life; he who comes to me will not be hungry, and he who believes in me will never be thirsty.” (John 6:35 ULT)
In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The **Topic** is “I” (meaning Jesus himself) and the **Image** is “bread.” Bread was the primary food that people ate in that place and time. The similarity between bread and Jesus is that people need both to live. Just as people need to eat food in order to have physical life, people need to trust in Jesus in order to have eternal life. The **Idea** of the metaphor is “life.” In this case, Jesus stated the central Idea of the metaphor, but often the Idea is only implied.
In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The **Topic** is “I” (meaning Jesus himself) and the **Image** is “bread.” Bread was the primary food that people ate in that place and time. The similarity between bread and Jesus is that people need both to live. Just as people need to eat food in order to have physical life, people need to trust in Jesus in order to have eternal life. The **Idea** of the metaphor is “life.” In this case, Jesus stated the central Idea of the metaphor, but often the Idea is only implied.
### Purposes of Metaphor
@ -75,13 +73,13 @@ In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The **Topic** is “I
* Another purpose is to emphasize that something (the **Topic**) has a particular quality (the **Idea**) or to show that it has that quality in an extreme way.
* Another purpose is to lead people to feel the same way about the **Topic** as they would feel about the **Image**.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons This Is a Translation Issue
* People may not recognize that something is a metaphor. In other words, they may mistake a metaphor for a literal statement, and thus misunderstand it.
* People may not be familiar with the thing that is used as an image, and so not be able to understand the metaphor.
* If the topic is not stated, people may not know what the topic is.
* People may not know the points of comparison that the speaker wants them to understand. If they fail to think of these points of comparison, they will not understand the metaphor.
* People may think that they understand the metaphor, but they do not. This can happen when they apply points of comparison from their own culture, rather than from the biblical culture.
* People may not recognize that something is a metaphor. In other words, they may mistake a metaphor for a literal statement, and thus, misunderstand it.
* People may not be familiar with the thing that is used as an image, and so, not be able to understand the metaphor.
* If the topic is not stated, people may not know what the topic is.
* People may not know the points of comparison that the speaker wants them to understand. If they fail to think of these points of comparison, they will not understand the metaphor.
* People may think that they understand the metaphor, but they do not. This can happen when they apply points of comparison from their own culture, rather than from the biblical culture.
#### Translation Principles
@ -90,85 +88,91 @@ In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The **Topic** is “I
### Examples from the Bible
> Listen to this word, **you cows of Bashan**, (Amos 4:1 ULT)
> Listen to this word, **you cows of Bashan**, (Amos 4:1q ULT)
In this metaphor Amos speaks to the upper-class women of Samaria (“you,” the Topic) as if they were cows (the Image). Amos does not say what similarity(s) he intends between these women and cows. He wants the reader to think of them, and he fully expects that readers from his culture will easily do so. From the context, we can see that he means that the women are like cows in that they are fat and interested only in feeding themselves. If we were to apply similarities from a different culture, such as that cows are sacred and should be worshipped, we would get the wrong meaning from this verse.
NOTE: Amos does not actually mean that the women are cows. He speaks to them as human beings.
> And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; **we are the clay**. **You are our potter**; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
> Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; **we are the clay**. **You are our potter**; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
The example above has two related metaphors. The Topic(s) are “we” and “you,” and the Image(s) are “clay” and “potter.” The similarity between a potter and God is the fact that both make what they wish out of their material. The potter makes what he wishes out of the clay, and God makes what he wishes out of his people. The Idea being expressed by the comparison between the potter’s clay and “us” is that **neither the clay nor God’s people have a right to complain about what they are becoming**.
The example above has two related metaphors. The Topic(s) are “we” and “you,” and the Image(s) are “clay” and “potter.” The similarity between a potter and God is the fact that both make what they wish out of their material. The potter makes what he wishes out of the clay, and God makes what he wishes out of his people. The Idea being expressed by the comparison between the potter’s clay and “us” is that **neither the clay nor God’s people have a right to complain about what they are becoming**.
> Jesus said to them, “Take heed and beware of **the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees**.” The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, “It is because we took no bread.” (Matthew 16:6-7 ULT)
> Jesus said to them, “Take heed and beware of **the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees**.” The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, “It is because we did not take bread.” (Matthew 16:6-7 ULT)
Jesus used a metaphor here, but his disciples did not realize it. When he said “yeast,” they thought he was talking about bread, but “yeast” was the Image in his metaphor, and the Topic was the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Since the disciples (the original audience) did not understand what Jesus meant, it would not be good to state clearly here what Jesus meant.
### Translation Strategies
If people would understand the metaphor in the same way that the original readers would have understood it, go ahead and use it. Be sure to test the translation to make sure that people do understand it in the right way.
If people do not or would not understand it, here are some other strategies.
1. If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (that is, it is a passive metaphor), then express the **Idea** in the simplest way preferred by your language.
1. If the metaphor seems to be an active metaphor, you can translate it literally **if you think that the target language also uses this metaphor in the same way to mean the same thing as in the Bible**. If you do this, be sure to test it to make sure that the language community understands it correctly.
1. If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding words such as “like” or “as.” See [Simile](../figs-simile/01.md).
1. If the target audience would not know the **Image**, see [Translate Unknowns](../translate-unknown/01.md) for ideas on how to translate that image.
1. If the target audience would not use that **Image** for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.
1. If the target audience would not know what the **Topic** is, then state the topic clearly. (However, do not do this if the original audience did not know what the Topic was.)
1. If the target audience would not know the intended similarity (the **Idea**) between the topic and the image, then state it clearly.
1. If none of these strategies is satisfactory, then simply state the **Idea** plainly without using a metaphor.
(1) If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (that is, it is a passive metaphor), then express the **Idea** in the simplest way preferred by your language.
(2) If the metaphor seems to be an active metaphor, you can translate it literally **if you think that the target language also uses this metaphor in the same way to mean the same thing as in the Bible**. If you do this, be sure to test it to make sure that the language community understands it correctly.
(3) If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding words such as “like” or “as.” See [Simile](../figs-simile/01.md).
(4) If the target audience would not know the **Image**, see [Translate Unknowns](../translate-unknown/01.md) for ideas on how to translate that image.
(5) If the target audience would not use that **Image** for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.
(6) If the target audience would not know what the **Topic** is, then state the topic clearly. (However, do not do this if the original audience did not know what the Topic was.)
(7) If the target audience would not know the intended similarity (the **Idea**) between the topic and the image, then state it clearly.
(8) If none of these strategies is satisfactory, then simply state the **Idea** plainly without using a metaphor.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (that is, a passive metaphor), then express the Idea in the simplest way preferred by your language.
> Then one of the leaders of the synagogue, named Jairus, came, and when he saw him, **fell at his feet**. (Mark 5:22 ULT)
>> Then one of the leaders of the synagogue, named Jairus, came, and when he saw him, **immediately bowed down in front of him**.
> Then, see, one of the leaders of the synagogue, named Jairus, came, and when he saw him, **fell at his feet**. (Mark 5:22 ULT)
>
> > Then one of the leaders of the synagogue, named Jairus, came, and when he saw him, **immediately bowed down in front of him**.
(2) If the metaphor seems to be an active metaphor, you can translate it literally **if you think that the target language also uses this metaphor in the same way to mean the same thing as in the Bible**. If you do this, be sure to test it to make sure that the language community understands it correctly.
> It was because of your **hard hearts** that he wrote you this law, (Mark 10:5 ULT)
>> It was because of your **hard hearts** that he wrote you this law,
> But Jesus said to them, “He wrote this commandment to you because of your **hardness of heart.** (Mark 10:5 ULT)
>
> > It was because of your **hard hearts** that he wrote you this law,
We made no change to this one, but it must be tested to make sure that the target audience correctly understands this metaphor.
(3) If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding words such as “like” or “as.”
> And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the **clay**. You are our **potter**; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
>> And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are **like** clay. You are **like** a potter; and we all are the work of your hand.
> Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we **are the clay.** You **are our potter**; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
>
> > And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are **like** clay. You are **like** a potter; and we all are the work of your hand.
(4) If the target audience would not know the **Image**, see [Translate Unknowns](../translate-unknown/01.md) for ideas on how to translate that image.
> Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you **to kick a goad**. (Acts 26:14 ULT)
>> Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you to **kick against a pointed stick**.
> Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you **to kick against a goad**. (Acts 26:14b ULT)
>
> > Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you to **kick against a pointed stick**.
(5) If the target audience would not use that **Image** for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.
> And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the **clay**. You are our **potter**; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
>> “And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the **wood**. You are our **carver**; and we all are the work of your hand.”
>> “And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the **string**. You are the **weaver**; and we all are the work of your hand.”
> Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the **clay**. You are our **potter**; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
>
> > “And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the **wood**. You are our **carver**; and we all are the work of your hand.”
> > “And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the **string**. You are the **weaver**; and we all are the work of your hand.”
(6) If the target audience would not know what the **Topic** is, then state the topic clearly. (However, do not do this if the original audience did not know what the topic was.)
> Yahweh lives; may **my rock** be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted. (Psalm 18:46 ULT)
>> Yahweh lives; **He is my rock**. May he be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.
> Yahweh lives; may **my rock** be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted. (Psalm 18:46 ULT)
>
> > Yahweh lives; **He is my rock**. May he be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.
(7) If the target audience would not know the intended similarity between the Topic and the Image, then state it clearly.
> Yahweh lives; may **my rock** be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted. (Psalm 18:46 ULT)
>> Yahweh lives; may he be praised because he is the rock **under which I can hide from my enemies**. May the God of my salvation be exalted.
> Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you **to kick a goad**. (Acts 26:14 ULT)
>> Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? You **fight against me and hurt yourself like an ox that kicks against its owner’s pointed stick**.
> Yahweh lives; may **my rock** be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted. (Psalm 18:46 ULT)
>
> > Yahweh lives; may he be praised because he is the rock **under which I can hide from my enemies**. May the God of my salvation be exalted.
>
> Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you **to kick against a goad**. (Acts 26:14 ULT)
>
> > Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? You **fight against me and hurt yourself like an ox that kicks against its owner’s pointed stick**.
(8) If none of these strategies are satisfactory, then simply state the idea plainly without using a metaphor.
> I will make you become **fishers of men**. (Mark 1:17 ULT)
>> I will make you become **people who gather men**.
>> Now you gather fish. I will make you **gather people**.
> I will make you to become **fishers of men**. (Mark 1:17b ULT)
>
> > I will make you to become **people who gather men**.
> > Now you gather fish. I will make you **gather people**.
To learn more about specific metaphors, see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md).
To learn more about specific metaphors, see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md).